Society
The Science Story Behind Middle Eastern Oil
How ancient oceans, microscopic life, and deep geological time turned the Middle East into the world’s energy heartland — and why that matters in the era of the Iran–Israel crisis
How ancient oceans, microscopic life, and deep geological time turned the Middle East into the world’s energy heartland — and why that matters in the era of the Iran–Israel crisis
When geopolitical tensions flare in the Middle East (West Asia), global markets tremble. Oil prices surge, shipping routes become strategic flashpoints, and diplomats rush to prevent wider conflict. The recent escalation involving Iran and Israel has once again drawn attention to the region’s central role in the global energy system.
But the real story of Middle Eastern oil began long before modern politics, long before nation-states, even long before humans existed.
It began hundreds of millions of years ago — in a vast tropical ocean that once covered much of what is now desert.
The immense oil reserves beneath the Middle East are not simply a matter of luck. They are the result of a rare convergence of geological processes that unfolded over hundreds of millions of years. Scientists often describe it as a geological perfect storm: the right organisms, the right environment, the right rocks, and the right tectonic conditions.
Together, they created one of the richest hydrocarbon provinces on Earth.
When the Middle East Was an Ocean
Today the Arabian Peninsula is associated with scorching deserts and arid landscapes. But during several periods in Earth’s distant past — particularly between 300 million and 50 million years ago — much of the region lay beneath warm, shallow seas.
These seas were biologically rich environments filled with microscopic organisms such as plankton, algae, and marine bacteria. When these organisms died, their remains settled on the seafloor, forming thick layers of organic material.
Normally, dead organisms would decompose and disappear. But under certain conditions — particularly when oxygen levels are low — organic material can accumulate faster than it decays.
Over millions of years, these deposits were buried under layers of sediment such as sand, clay, and limestone. As burial continued, pressure and temperature gradually increased.
Under these conditions, the organic matter slowly transformed into hydrocarbons — the molecules that make up crude oil and natural gas.
This transformation process, known as thermal maturation, typically takes tens of millions of years.
By the time the process was complete, the remains of ancient microscopic life had become the petroleum that fuels modern economies.
The Birth of Source Rocks
In petroleum geology, the first critical ingredient for oil formation is what scientists call a source rock — a rock formation rich in organic material capable of generating hydrocarbons.
The Middle East contains some of the most productive source rocks ever discovered.
One famous example is the Jurassic-age source rock systems beneath the Persian Gulf, which produced enormous volumes of petroleum over geological time. Because these source rocks formed in stable marine environments rich in organic matter, they generated hydrocarbons in extraordinary quantities.
Once oil forms inside source rocks, it does not remain there permanently. Oil and gas molecules are lighter than water and tend to migrate upward through porous rock layers.
This migration leads to the next crucial stage in oil accumulation.
The Role of Reservoir Rocks
Oil cannot be extracted directly from source rocks in most cases. Instead, it migrates into reservoir rocks — porous formations that can store hydrocarbons.
Many Middle Eastern oil fields are located in carbonate reservoirs, particularly limestone and dolomite formations. These rocks are ideal storage spaces because they contain microscopic pores and fractures that allow fluids to accumulate and flow.
The Middle East’s geological history produced vast carbonate platforms — essentially enormous underwater limestone systems built by marine organisms such as corals and shell-forming creatures.
These formations eventually became some of the most productive oil reservoirs in the world.
In places like Saudi Arabia, reservoir rocks are so permeable that oil can flow relatively easily compared with many other parts of the world. This is one reason Middle Eastern oil is often cheaper to extract than petroleum from more complex geological settings.
Nature’s Underground Traps
Even if oil forms and migrates into reservoir rocks, it can still escape unless something traps it underground.
In petroleum geology, these traps are essential. Without them, hydrocarbons would eventually leak to the surface.
The Middle East possesses an abundance of these traps. One important mechanism involves evaporite deposits — thick layers of salt and gypsum that formed when ancient seas evaporated. These rocks act as nearly impermeable seals that prevent oil from escaping.
Another type of trap forms through tectonic folding, when geological forces bend rock layers into arches or domes. Oil migrating upward becomes trapped beneath these structures.
Over millions of years, enormous volumes of petroleum accumulated in such formations. The result: giant oil fields that contain billions of barrels of crude oil.
The World’s Largest Oil Fields
Because of this combination of favourable geological factors, the Middle East hosts several of the largest oil fields ever discovered.
Among them is the famous Ghawar Field, located in eastern Saudi Arabia. Discovered in 1948, it remains the largest conventional oil field on Earth.
Stretching over roughly 280 kilometers, Ghawar has produced tens of billions of barrels of oil since operations began.
Other massive fields exist across the region in countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates.
Together, these reserves account for roughly half of the world’s proven oil resources.
Few other regions possess such geological abundance.
Why Oil Is Easier to Extract Here
Another reason the Middle East dominates global oil production lies in the quality and accessibility of its reservoirs.
In many parts of the world — such as shale basins in North America — extracting oil requires advanced techniques like hydraulic fracturing.
But in much of the Middle East, reservoirs are large, pressurized, and geologically simple. In some cases, early wells produced oil that flowed naturally to the surface due to underground pressure.
These favorable conditions have historically made Middle Eastern oil among the least expensive to produce globally.
This economic advantage has shaped global energy markets for decades.
The Geography of Energy
Geology alone does not explain the region’s strategic importance. Geography also plays a critical role.
Much of the oil produced in the Middle East must pass through narrow maritime routes before reaching global markets.
One of the most important of these is the Strait of Hormuz, a narrow waterway connecting the Persian Gulf to the Arabian Sea.
Roughly one-fifth of the world’s oil supply travels through this corridor.
Tankers carrying petroleum from Gulf states must navigate this passage before heading toward Asia, Europe, and North America.
Because of this, the strait is widely considered one of the most strategically sensitive shipping routes on Earth.
Any disruption there can send shockwaves through global energy markets.
Oil and Modern Geopolitics
The first major oil discovery in the Middle East occurred in 1908 in Iran, marking the beginning of a new era in global energy.
Over the following decades, vast reserves were discovered across the Arabian Peninsula.
These discoveries transformed desert economies into some of the wealthiest states in the world.
They also reshaped international politics.
Oil wealth funded massive infrastructure development, modern cities, and sovereign wealth funds. At the same time, competition over resources contributed to geopolitical rivalries, international alliances, and strategic military interests.
The Middle East gradually became the focal point of global energy security.
Today, developments in the region influence oil markets worldwide.
When tensions rise — as in the current standoff involving Iran and Israel — investors and governments immediately worry about disruptions to energy supply.
A Resource Formed in Deep Time
The story of Middle Eastern oil reminds us that modern geopolitics often rests on geological foundations laid long before human history.
The hydrocarbons that power today’s global economy were created from the remains of microscopic organisms that lived hundreds of millions of years ago.
Ancient seas nurtured these organisms. Sediments buried them. Pressure and heat transformed them into petroleum.
Then geological forces trapped the oil deep underground until modern technology uncovered it.
In this sense, the oil fields of the Middle East are time capsules from Earth’s deep past.
The Future Beyond Oil
Despite the region’s enormous reserves, the world is gradually moving toward alternative energy systems.
Renewable technologies such as solar, wind, and green hydrogen are expanding rapidly. Even many oil-producing countries in the Middle East are investing heavily in energy diversification.
Yet petroleum will likely remain an important part of the global energy mix for decades.
As long as that remains true, the geological legacy of ancient oceans beneath the Middle East will continue to influence global politics.
The tensions between Iran and Israel are shaped by many factors — ideology, security concerns, and regional rivalries. But beneath all these lies another reality: the region sits atop one of the most extraordinary geological endowments on Earth.
A resource formed in deep time continues to shape the present.
And perhaps, for some time yet, the future.
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Climate
Climate Disasters Disrupted Schooling for 171 Million Students in 2025, UNICEF Finds
Climate disasters disrupted schooling for 171 million students worldwide in 2025, highlighting the urgent need for climate-resilient schools and education systems.
Climate-related disasters disrupted schooling for at least 171 million students worldwide in 2025, affecting one in every 10 school-age children, according to a new UNICEF report that warns of growing threats to learning, educational equality and future economic prospects.
The report, Learning Interrupted: Global Snapshot of Climate-Related School Disruptions in 2025, released on September 10, analysed data from 106 countries and territories. It found that storms, floods, heatwaves, droughts and wildfires caused school closures, shortened teaching hours, reduced attendance and shifts to remote learning.
The findings underline how climate change is emerging as a threat to educational continuity, particularly in countries where schools lack the infrastructure and resources to withstand extreme weather.
Storms and floods interrupt learning
Storms were the leading cause of climate-related school disruptions in 2025, affecting 109 million students globally. Floods affected at least 70 million, while heatwaves disrupted schooling for approximately 50 million children. These figures overlap and should not be added together as separate groups.
In Pakistan, severe monsoon flooding in August delayed the return to school for more than 28 million students. In Egypt, a powerful Khamsin wind-and-dust storm prompted a nationwide suspension of classes for one day, affecting more than 28 million students.
The problem extends beyond individual disasters. Forty countries experienced multiple rounds of climate-related school disruptions during 2025, exposing students to repeated interruptions throughout the academic year.
Floods can damage classrooms, sanitation facilities and learning materials, while extreme heat can make classrooms unsafe and undermine students’ ability to concentrate. Even after schools reopen, damaged infrastructure, disrupted transport and household financial pressures can prevent children from returning to regular attendance.
A growing threat to educational equality
Three-quarters of the students affected in 2025 lived in low- and lower-middle-income countries, where education systems often have fewer resources to prepare for disasters and restore teaching afterwards, UNICEF found.
The World Bank’s 2024 report, Choosing Our Future: Education for Climate Action, offers further evidence of the long-term challenge. It estimated that 400 million students globally experienced school closures due to extreme weather between 2022 and 2024. In affected schools in low-income countries, students lost approximately 45 instructional days between January 2022 and June 2024, compared with around six days in high-income countries.
These interruptions can compound existing educational disadvantages. Students from wealthier households may have access to private tutoring, digital devices and alternative learning arrangements. Children from poorer households may lack internet connectivity, electricity or suitable spaces to study during closures.
South Asia’s exposure highlights the challenge
UNICEF’s previous assessment, covering 2024, recorded at least 242 million students experiencing climate-related school disruptions across 85 countries and territories. South Asia was the most affected region, with 128 million students impacted. Heatwaves affected an estimated 171 million students worldwide that year.
India was among the countries affected by heat-related educational disruptions. In April 2024, extreme heat contributed to school interruptions across Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, the Philippines and Thailand, affecting at least 118 million children collectively. The figure represents the five-country group, not India alone.
The 2024 and 2025 totals should not be interpreted as a direct year-on-year decline. The reports covered different sets of countries and climate events, and the number of recorded disruptions depends on the incidents identified in each assessment.
Climate-resilient schools become a priority
UNICEF estimates that disruptions experienced in 2025 could cost affected students at least US$200 billion in lifetime earnings through lost learning and widening educational inequalities. This is a projection of potential future losses, rather than income already lost.
The World Bank has argued that relatively modest investments can help schools adapt. Its 2024 analysis estimated that a one-time investment of US$18.51 per child could help mitigate learning losses through measures such as improving classroom temperatures, strengthening school infrastructure and training teachers.
Aerial view showing significant flood damage in a residential neighborhood with inundated streets and homes.Image credit:Pexels
UNICEF is calling for climate resilience to be incorporated into education planning, alongside investment in stronger school buildings, emergency preparedness and systems that allow teaching to continue during disasters.
As extreme weather increasingly interrupts academic calendars, education systems must prepare not only to enrol children but also to protect their ability to learn. Climate-resilient infrastructure, early-warning systems and plans for educational continuity will be essential to ensuring that disasters do not deepen existing inequalities in access to education.
Society
Global Job Market Faces a Growing Inclusion Gap as AI and Digitalisation Reshape Work
Global employment faces a growing inclusion gap as AI and digitalisation reshape the labour market. UN and ILO reports highlight persistent informal employment, youth exclusion and unequal access to the skills needed for emerging jobs.
The global economy is undergoing a profound employment transition, driven by artificial intelligence (AI), digitalisation, demographic changes and the shift towards greener industries. Yet, while these forces are expected to create new career opportunities, access to employment and the benefits of technological progress remain deeply unequal, according to the United Nations’ World Social Report 2026.
Released on October 15, the report, published by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), warns that billions of people remain excluded from the jobs, skills, infrastructure and social protections required to participate in economic transformation. Its findings highlight a central challenge for policymakers: creating employment opportunities is not enough unless people can access them and secure decent working conditions.
The scale of the problem is evident in the report’s latest figures. In 2025, 58 per cent of workers worldwide were informally employed, while 27 per cent of young women aged 15–24 were neither employed nor participating in education or training. An estimated 2.2 billion people also lacked internet access, limiting their ability to benefit from digital services, online learning and emerging employment opportunities.
More Jobs, but Unequal Opportunities
The challenge extends beyond unemployment to the quality and security of work. The International Labour Organization’s Employment and Social Trends 2026 report estimated that global unemployment would remain at 4.9 per cent in 2026, equivalent to approximately 186 million people. However, nearly 300 million workers continued to live in extreme working poverty, surviving on less than US$3 a day. The report also projected that 2.1 billion workers would be in informal employment in 2026, often without adequate social protection or employment security.
Young people face particular difficulties entering the labour market. According to the ILO, youth unemployment reached 12.4 per cent in 2025, while approximately 260 million young people were not in employment, education or training. For many, the transition from education to work remains uncertain, particularly where economies fail to generate enough productive jobs.
These challenges coincide with substantial changes in the kinds of jobs employers expect to need. The World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report 2025, based on projections from more than 1,000 employers, estimates that technological, economic, demographic and green-transition trends could create 170 million jobs globally by 2030 while displacing 92 million. This would produce a net gain of 78 million jobs. However, the report warns that the transition will require extensive workforce adaptation. Nearly 40 per cent of workers’ existing skills are expected to change by 2030, and 63 per cent of surveyed employers identified skills gaps as a major barrier to business transformation.
The projections suggest that the central employment challenge is not simply whether jobs will disappear, but whether workers can move into emerging roles. Demand is expected to grow in areas such as AI, data analysis and cybersecurity, alongside essential occupations in healthcare, education and agriculture. Workers whose skills do not match changing requirements risk being excluded even as new vacancies emerge.
Digital Access and Skills Will Shape the Transition
Access to technology is another dividing line. The World Bank’s Digital Progress and Trends Report 2025 identifies disparities in connectivity, computing infrastructure, relevant data and digital skills as barriers to wider participation in the AI economy. While AI adoption is expanding, high-income countries continue to dominate important areas of AI innovation and computing capacity.
Representational image.Image credit:Pexels
For people without reliable internet access, affordable devices or opportunities to acquire digital skills, the shift towards online recruitment, digital services and AI-assisted work can deepen existing disadvantages. Connectivity alone, however, is insufficient: workers also need relevant training, accessible education and opportunities to apply their skills in productive employment.
The UN report argues that governments must invest in quality education, lifelong learning, digital and AI capabilities, affordable connectivity and stronger social protection. Labour-market policies must also support decent working conditions, equal opportunities and training that helps workers move between occupations.
For developing economies with large young populations, the stakes are particularly high. A growing workforce can support economic growth only when enough productive jobs are available and workers can acquire the capabilities those jobs demand. Without such opportunities, demographic potential can translate into prolonged unemployment, insecure work and widening inequality.
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