Society
The Science Story Behind Middle Eastern Oil
How ancient oceans, microscopic life, and deep geological time turned the Middle East into the world’s energy heartland — and why that matters in the era of the Iran–Israel crisis
How ancient oceans, microscopic life, and deep geological time turned the Middle East into the world’s energy heartland — and why that matters in the era of the Iran–Israel crisis
When geopolitical tensions flare in the Middle East (West Asia), global markets tremble. Oil prices surge, shipping routes become strategic flashpoints, and diplomats rush to prevent wider conflict. The recent escalation involving Iran and Israel has once again drawn attention to the region’s central role in the global energy system.
But the real story of Middle Eastern oil began long before modern politics, long before nation-states, even long before humans existed.
It began hundreds of millions of years ago — in a vast tropical ocean that once covered much of what is now desert.
The immense oil reserves beneath the Middle East are not simply a matter of luck. They are the result of a rare convergence of geological processes that unfolded over hundreds of millions of years. Scientists often describe it as a geological perfect storm: the right organisms, the right environment, the right rocks, and the right tectonic conditions.
Together, they created one of the richest hydrocarbon provinces on Earth.
When the Middle East Was an Ocean
Today the Arabian Peninsula is associated with scorching deserts and arid landscapes. But during several periods in Earth’s distant past — particularly between 300 million and 50 million years ago — much of the region lay beneath warm, shallow seas.
These seas were biologically rich environments filled with microscopic organisms such as plankton, algae, and marine bacteria. When these organisms died, their remains settled on the seafloor, forming thick layers of organic material.
Normally, dead organisms would decompose and disappear. But under certain conditions — particularly when oxygen levels are low — organic material can accumulate faster than it decays.
Over millions of years, these deposits were buried under layers of sediment such as sand, clay, and limestone. As burial continued, pressure and temperature gradually increased.
Under these conditions, the organic matter slowly transformed into hydrocarbons — the molecules that make up crude oil and natural gas.
This transformation process, known as thermal maturation, typically takes tens of millions of years.
By the time the process was complete, the remains of ancient microscopic life had become the petroleum that fuels modern economies.
The Birth of Source Rocks
In petroleum geology, the first critical ingredient for oil formation is what scientists call a source rock — a rock formation rich in organic material capable of generating hydrocarbons.
The Middle East contains some of the most productive source rocks ever discovered.
One famous example is the Jurassic-age source rock systems beneath the Persian Gulf, which produced enormous volumes of petroleum over geological time. Because these source rocks formed in stable marine environments rich in organic matter, they generated hydrocarbons in extraordinary quantities.
Once oil forms inside source rocks, it does not remain there permanently. Oil and gas molecules are lighter than water and tend to migrate upward through porous rock layers.
This migration leads to the next crucial stage in oil accumulation.
The Role of Reservoir Rocks
Oil cannot be extracted directly from source rocks in most cases. Instead, it migrates into reservoir rocks — porous formations that can store hydrocarbons.
Many Middle Eastern oil fields are located in carbonate reservoirs, particularly limestone and dolomite formations. These rocks are ideal storage spaces because they contain microscopic pores and fractures that allow fluids to accumulate and flow.
The Middle East’s geological history produced vast carbonate platforms — essentially enormous underwater limestone systems built by marine organisms such as corals and shell-forming creatures.
These formations eventually became some of the most productive oil reservoirs in the world.
In places like Saudi Arabia, reservoir rocks are so permeable that oil can flow relatively easily compared with many other parts of the world. This is one reason Middle Eastern oil is often cheaper to extract than petroleum from more complex geological settings.
Nature’s Underground Traps
Even if oil forms and migrates into reservoir rocks, it can still escape unless something traps it underground.
In petroleum geology, these traps are essential. Without them, hydrocarbons would eventually leak to the surface.
The Middle East possesses an abundance of these traps. One important mechanism involves evaporite deposits — thick layers of salt and gypsum that formed when ancient seas evaporated. These rocks act as nearly impermeable seals that prevent oil from escaping.
Another type of trap forms through tectonic folding, when geological forces bend rock layers into arches or domes. Oil migrating upward becomes trapped beneath these structures.
Over millions of years, enormous volumes of petroleum accumulated in such formations. The result: giant oil fields that contain billions of barrels of crude oil.
The World’s Largest Oil Fields
Because of this combination of favourable geological factors, the Middle East hosts several of the largest oil fields ever discovered.
Among them is the famous Ghawar Field, located in eastern Saudi Arabia. Discovered in 1948, it remains the largest conventional oil field on Earth.
Stretching over roughly 280 kilometers, Ghawar has produced tens of billions of barrels of oil since operations began.
Other massive fields exist across the region in countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates.
Together, these reserves account for roughly half of the world’s proven oil resources.
Few other regions possess such geological abundance.
Why Oil Is Easier to Extract Here
Another reason the Middle East dominates global oil production lies in the quality and accessibility of its reservoirs.
In many parts of the world — such as shale basins in North America — extracting oil requires advanced techniques like hydraulic fracturing.
But in much of the Middle East, reservoirs are large, pressurized, and geologically simple. In some cases, early wells produced oil that flowed naturally to the surface due to underground pressure.
These favorable conditions have historically made Middle Eastern oil among the least expensive to produce globally.
This economic advantage has shaped global energy markets for decades.
The Geography of Energy
Geology alone does not explain the region’s strategic importance. Geography also plays a critical role.
Much of the oil produced in the Middle East must pass through narrow maritime routes before reaching global markets.
One of the most important of these is the Strait of Hormuz, a narrow waterway connecting the Persian Gulf to the Arabian Sea.
Roughly one-fifth of the world’s oil supply travels through this corridor.
Tankers carrying petroleum from Gulf states must navigate this passage before heading toward Asia, Europe, and North America.
Because of this, the strait is widely considered one of the most strategically sensitive shipping routes on Earth.
Any disruption there can send shockwaves through global energy markets.
Oil and Modern Geopolitics
The first major oil discovery in the Middle East occurred in 1908 in Iran, marking the beginning of a new era in global energy.
Over the following decades, vast reserves were discovered across the Arabian Peninsula.
These discoveries transformed desert economies into some of the wealthiest states in the world.
They also reshaped international politics.
Oil wealth funded massive infrastructure development, modern cities, and sovereign wealth funds. At the same time, competition over resources contributed to geopolitical rivalries, international alliances, and strategic military interests.
The Middle East gradually became the focal point of global energy security.
Today, developments in the region influence oil markets worldwide.
When tensions rise — as in the current standoff involving Iran and Israel — investors and governments immediately worry about disruptions to energy supply.
A Resource Formed in Deep Time
The story of Middle Eastern oil reminds us that modern geopolitics often rests on geological foundations laid long before human history.
The hydrocarbons that power today’s global economy were created from the remains of microscopic organisms that lived hundreds of millions of years ago.
Ancient seas nurtured these organisms. Sediments buried them. Pressure and heat transformed them into petroleum.
Then geological forces trapped the oil deep underground until modern technology uncovered it.
In this sense, the oil fields of the Middle East are time capsules from Earth’s deep past.
The Future Beyond Oil
Despite the region’s enormous reserves, the world is gradually moving toward alternative energy systems.
Renewable technologies such as solar, wind, and green hydrogen are expanding rapidly. Even many oil-producing countries in the Middle East are investing heavily in energy diversification.
Yet petroleum will likely remain an important part of the global energy mix for decades.
As long as that remains true, the geological legacy of ancient oceans beneath the Middle East will continue to influence global politics.
The tensions between Iran and Israel are shaped by many factors — ideology, security concerns, and regional rivalries. But beneath all these lies another reality: the region sits atop one of the most extraordinary geological endowments on Earth.
A resource formed in deep time continues to shape the present.
And perhaps, for some time yet, the future.
Society
EdPublica’s Dipin Damodharan wins international Solutions Journalism award for story on Kerala’s solar model
EdPublica’s Dipin Damodharan wins the 2024–25 Solutions Journalism Network Award for his story on Kerala’s community-led solar energy model.
EdPublica has received another international recognition after its Editor-in-Chief, Dipin Damodharan, won a 2024–25 Solutions Journalism Network Award for his reporting on Kerala’s renewable energy transition, published on EdPublica.com.
Dipin Damodharan has won the Second-Place Prize in the “Best of Solutions Journalism in News Articles (Small Newsroom)” category at the 2024-25 Solutions Journalism Network (SJN) Awards for his story, “Why Kerala Has Struggled to Replicate Perinjanam’s Solar Success.”
The award recognises impactful journalism that highlights credible responses to pressing social challenges. Dipin’s story examined the community-driven rooftop solar initiative in Perinjanam village in Kerala and explored the structural, financial, and policy challenges that have limited the replication of the model across the state.
The winners were selected by a panel of over four dozen international judges from around the world.
Describing this year’s award-winning entries, the Solutions Journalism Network said they “span issue areas and media formats. They come from around the globe, from outlets large and small. And most importantly, they represent an entirely different way of understanding news — not as a mechanism mainly for chronicling the world’s woes but also as a window into people’s creativity and resilience in trying to address them.”
The Solutions Journalism Network, a US-based organisation, is considered one of the world’s leading institutions promoting solutions-oriented reporting and constructive public-interest journalism.
The story was produced as part of the Earth Journalism Network (EJN) fellowship on renewable energy reporting. Through extensive field reporting, the article documented how a local community-led renewable energy initiative evolved into a successful decentralized solar model while also examining the gaps that continue to hinder broader adoption.
The SJN Awards honour journalism that combines rigorous reporting with an examination of responses to social, environmental, and governance challenges.
Dipin Damodharan is a journalist based in India and the Editor-in-Chief of EdPublica, an independent global media platform focusing on science, environment, education, and public-interest journalism.
The official announcement was published by the Solutions Journalism Network on its website.
Click here to read the award winning story.
Climate
Why Humid Heat Is Becoming India’s Most Dangerous Climate Threat
From menopausal women and taxi drivers to surfing instructors, rising humidity is making heat harder to escape—even indoors.
Humid Heat in India is emerging as a growing public health threat. Through data, expert insights and lived experiences from across the country, EdPublica explores how rising heat and humidity are making everyday life increasingly difficult for millions of Indians.
By 9 a.m., Radha, a 55-year-old office worker from Kottayam in the southern Indian state of Kerala, is already drenched in sweat as she waits for her bus. By noon, waves of heat, anxiety and discomfort begin to set in. Menopause had already brought frequent hot flashes, she says, but rising temperatures and humidity have made them harder to endure.
For Radha, relief no longer comes easily. Even routine tasks feel more exhausting than they once did. Her experience reflects a growing reality across India and much of the world: climate change is not only making the planet hotter, it is making heat harder for the human body to bear.
Humid Heat in India Taking a Growing Toll
When high temperatures combine with high humidity, the body struggles to cool itself through sweating, its primary cooling mechanism. As moisture in the air increases, sweat evaporates less efficiently, causing heat to build up inside the body.
A recent analysis by Climate Central found that dangerous humid heat days have more than doubled globally since the 1970s. The average number of dangerous humid heat days has risen from around 10 days per year to 23 days annually.
Alarmingly, climate change is now responsible for nearly two-thirds of these dangerous humid heat days. The consequences are increasingly visible. A study examining mortality linked to extreme heat events since 2000 estimates that more than 260,000 people have died from heat-related hazards worldwide.
Globally, climate change is now responsible for six times as many dangerous humid heat days each year as it was in the 1970s, underscoring how rapidly the risk has intensified. In 2025 alone, the world experienced an average of 23 dangerous humid heat days. Climate Central estimates that 19 of those days, or 83 percent, were added by human-caused climate change.
“These findings show how profoundly climate change is reshaping our world,” said Kaitlyn Trudeau, Applied Climate Scientist at Climate Central. “Dangerous humid heat has gone from being an uncommon event to a defining feature of daily life in some regions, pushing conditions closer to the limits of what the human body can safely endure.” Climate Central’s analysis of 961 cities worldwide found that 69 percent, or 665 cities, are now experiencing significantly more dangerous humid heat days because of climate change. On average, these cities recorded 46 additional dangerous humid heat days each year during the last decade compared with a world without human-caused warming.
Researchers say the findings highlight how climate change is evolving from an environmental concern into a growing public health emergency, particularly in regions already struggling with heat exposure, limited access to cooling and inadequate health infrastructure.
What Is Humid Heat?
Scientists often use “wet-bulb temperature” to measure humid heat. The metric combines air temperature and humidity to estimate how effectively the human body can cool itself through sweating.
Climate Central defines wet-bulb temperatures of 25°C or higher as dangerous humid heat conditions. When humidity and temperature combine to push wet-bulb temperatures upward, the body’s natural cooling system becomes less effective.
In extreme conditions, the body can no longer regulate its temperature adequately, increasing the risk of heat exhaustion, heat stroke and even death.
Older adults, children, pregnant women and people with pre-existing health conditions face the greatest risks. High humidity can worsen cardiovascular stress, respiratory illnesses and other heat-related health complications.
“Dangerous humid heat has more than doubled since the 1970s. We’re already seeing the consequences play out in real time,” said Lisa Patel, Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics at Stanford Children’s Health and Executive Director of the Medical Society Consortium on Climate and Health.
“As a pediatrician, these numbers are a wake-up call. This kind of data is exactly the tool clinicians and public health officials need to anticipate where heat-related illness will strike and who is most at risk before people end up in the emergency room.”
How Humid Heat Is Affecting India
Humid Heat in India is already becoming visible in several cities, particularly along the country’s southern and eastern coasts.
According to Climate Central’s analysis, Tamil Nadu emerges as India’s most affected state. Tirunelveli experiences an average of 273 dangerous humid heat days annually, the highest among Indian cities. Chennai follows with 257 days, while Tiruchirappalli records 251. Vijayawada and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, along with Kolkata and Mumbai, are also among India’s humid-heat hotspots.
The danger does not end when people move indoors.
A separate study by Climate Trends found that heat exposure frequently continues inside homes. Researchers monitored temperatures and humidity in 50 low- and middle-income households in Chennai between October 2025 and April 2026 and found that indoor temperatures regularly exceeded 32°C.
Some households experienced more than 5,700 hours above this threshold—equivalent to nearly eight months of continuous heat exposure. Most households recorded between 3,000 and 5,000 hours of such conditions.
The findings suggest that for many urban residents, especially those without access to air conditioning, relief from heat remains elusive even indoors.
Heat, Menopause and Everyday Life
For women such as Radha, humid heat can intensify already challenging health conditions.
The World Health Organization notes that hot flushes and night sweats are among the most common symptoms associated with menopause. These episodes involve sudden sensations of heat in the face, neck and chest, often accompanied by sweating, flushing, palpitations and discomfort.
Women who have undergone hysterectomy are known to experience more frequent and severe hot flushes. According to NFHS-5 data, nearly one in ten women aged 30 to 49 in some regions of India have undergone the procedure.
As temperatures and humidity rise, these symptoms can become even more difficult to manage, adding another layer to the health impacts of climate change that often goes overlooked.
A City Struggling to Cool Down
In Mumbai, 59-year-old driver Vikas says heat has become one of the city’s biggest challenges.
Water shortages are becoming more common, and even routine outdoor work is growing increasingly difficult.
“Sometimes people go to the beach at night just to find some relief from the heat. Even a brief spell of rain feels like a blessing now,” he says. “The problem is only going to get worse.”
His observations echo broader climate trends in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Climate Central’s analysis shows that Mumbai experiences an average of 206 dangerous humid heat days annually, while nearby Dombivli and Thane record even higher numbers. The conditions he describes are reflected in current forecasts. Climate Central projected a daily high wet-bulb temperature of 25.6°C in Mumbai on June 23, a level considered dangerous humid heat.
Surfing Through a Hotter Coastline
Further south, the effects are also being felt along India’s coast.
Rajaguru, a surfing instructor in Puducherry, says summers are arriving earlier than before, often beginning in February instead of March.
“We go surfing early in the morning, but even then the heat feels much more intense than it used to,” he says. “Sunburns and skin rashes are becoming common. Summer arrives with extreme heat, while the monsoon season increasingly brings cyclones.”
He has also noticed rising sea temperatures and changes in water conditions that affect both tourism and outdoor activities.
For people whose livelihoods depend on spending long hours outdoors, humid heat is becoming more than an inconvenience—it is becoming an occupational hazard.
The Vulnerability Gap
These experiences reflect a larger challenge facing India. The impacts of Humid Heat in India are magnified by inequalities in access to cooling, housing and reliable electricity.
Between 1995 and 2024, the country experienced 430 extreme weather events, resulting in more than 80,000 deaths and economic losses exceeding USD 170 billion. Rapid urbanisation has intensified the urban heat island effect, making cities significantly hotter than surrounding rural areas.
The latest Climate Change in the Indian Mind survey found that 84 percent of Indians report experiencing the effects of global warming. Yet only 15 percent of households own an air conditioner and 27 percent have access to an air cooler.
Even for those with cooling systems, reliable electricity is not guaranteed. Around 66 percent of Indians experience power disruptions on a typical day, even as demand surges during heatwaves. On May 21, 2026, India’s peak electricity consumption reached a record 270 gigawatts.
Despite being the world’s third-largest emitter of carbon dioxide, India’s per-capita emissions remain relatively low, reflecting deep inequalities in energy consumption and access.
For millions of people, escaping extreme heat is simply not an option.
When the Air Stops Offering Relief
Dangerous Humid Heat in India is already reshaping how people live, work and survive. As temperatures and humidity continue to rise, the boundary between uncomfortable and life-threatening conditions is becoming increasingly thin.
For millions of Indians, the challenge is no longer adapting to hotter days. It is adapting to air that no longer offers relief. As humidity rises alongside temperatures, surviving heat may become as much about access to cooling and electricity as it is about climate itself.
The future of climate adaptation may begin not in policy documents or air-conditioned offices, but in homes, buses, streets and workplaces where the heat is already impossible to ignore.
Climate
Climate Risks Shadow India’s Data Centre Boom, New Global Report Warns
Climate risk to data centres is rising in India, with extreme heat threatening operations in key digital infrastructure hubs, says a new report.
Climate Risk to Data Centres is emerging as a critical challenge for India’s digital ambitions. A new global study warns that extreme heat and infrastructure disruptions could threaten planned data centres in some of the country’s fastest-growing technology hubs.
Data centres are becoming an indispensable part of modern economies. They are often promoted as projects that generate employment and boost local economies. Yet, their rapid expansion is increasingly colliding with the realities of rising climate risks.
A new report released by climate risk consultancy XDI warns that some of the world’s fastest-growing destinations for data centre investment are also emerging as climate-risk hotspots. India, one of the fastest-growing digital economies, ranks 11th globally in terms of physical climate risk to planned data centre infrastructure.
Climate Risk to Data Centres Challenges India’s Digital Ambitions
The report, 2026 Global Analysis of Planned Data Centres for Physical Climate Risk and Resilience, assessed 2,595 planned data centres worldwide. It analyzed the risks of direct physical damage from climate hazards, operational disruptions caused by extreme heat, and indirect threats due to failures in supporting infrastructure such as electricity, water supply, telecommunications, and transport.
Climate Risks to Data Centres & The Southern States
While India narrowly misses the top ten in overall physical risk rankings, the findings on heat-related disruptions are more concerning. States including Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Karnataka have been identified among the top 30 regions worldwide with the highest projected operational disruption risk due to extreme heat for planned data centres.
The warning comes at a time when India is investing heavily in digital infrastructure to support artificial intelligence, cloud computing, and data storage. However, the study suggests that the long-term viability of these investments could depend as much on climate resilience as on technological capability.
Extreme Heat Threatens Operations
According to XDI, South Asia has one of the highest proportions of high-risk planned data centres globally. Facilities in the region are already classified as high risk under low-resilience construction settings, and this risk is projected to increase sharply by the end of the century. Europe is exposed to a 289% increase in average damage risk by 2100, even though it has only 7% of planned data centres at high risk.
“Much of the debate has focused on energy demand and water consumption. But physical climate risk is becoming an increasingly important consideration in its own right” Dr. Karl Mallon, Founder and Head of Science and Technology at XDI.
“The question is no longer simply where the next generation of digital infrastructure gets built, but whether those assets can remain operational, insurable, and economically resilient over their intended life,” he added.
Extreme heat is emerging as one of the biggest operational threats to data centres globally. Facilities depend on large-scale cooling systems to maintain servers and prevent outages. Rising temperatures increase cooling costs, place greater stress on electricity grids, and raise the risk of service interruptions.
The report finds that countries such as India, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, and Spain already record some of the highest projected operational disruption risks from heat, with more than 75% of analysed facilities classified as high risk.
A Window to Build Climate Resilience
The report also highlights the importance of indirect risks. A data centre may be designed to withstand extreme weather, but it remains vulnerable if surrounding infrastructure fails. Power outages, water shortages, damaged roads, or disruptions to telecommunications networks can all affect operations.
XDI noted that a separate analysis of data centres in Europe found that productivity losses become ten times higher when these indirect risks are considered alongside direct physical damage. The study, however, emphasises that future risks are not inevitable. Decisions taken during the planning stage, including site selection, engineering standards, and investments in climate resilience, can significantly reduce vulnerability before facilities are built. As global investment pours into AI and digital infrastructure, the report argues that climate resilience must become a central component of planning.
“Future risk is not fixed,” Mallon said. “Unlike existing infrastructure, planned data centres create a window of opportunity. Decisions made today may materially influence future performance, insurability, and operational continuity.” For India, where digital ambitions are expanding rapidly, the report serves as a reminder that the infrastructure powering the future must also be prepared for a warmer and more climate-uncertain world.
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