Space & Physics
Why does superconductivity matter?
Superconductivity was discovered by H. Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911, who was studying the resistance of solid Mercury (Hg) at cryogenic temperatures. Liquid helium was recently discovered at that time. At T = 4.2K, the resistance of Hg disappeared abruptly. This marked a transition to a new phase that was never seen before. The state is resistanceless, strongly diamagnetic, and denotes a new state of matter. K. Onnes sent two reports to KNAW (the local journal of the Netherlands), where he preferred calling the zero-resistance state ‘superconductivity’’.
There was another discovery that went unnoticed in the same experiment, which was the transition of superfluid Helium (He) at 2.2K, the so-called λ transition, below which He becomes a superfluid. However, we shall skip that discussion for now. A couple of years later, superconductivity was found in lead (Pb) at 7K. Much later, in 1941, Niobium Nitride was found to superconduct below 16 K. The burning question in those days was: what would the conductivity or resistivity of metals be at a very low temperature?
The reason behind such a question is Lord Kelvin’s suggestion that for metals, initially the resistivity decreases with falling temperature and finally climbs to infinity at zero Kelvin because electrons’ mobility becomes zero at 0 K, yielding zero conductivity and hence infinite resistivity. Kamerlingh Onnes and his assistant Jacob Clay studied the resistance of gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) down to T = 14K. There was a linear decrease in resistance until 14 K; however, lower temperatures cannot be accessed owing to the unavailability of liquid He, which eventually happened in 1908.
In fact, the experiment with Au and Pt was repeated after 1908. For Pt, the resistivity became constant after 4.2K, while Au is found to superconduct at very low temperatures. Thus, Lord Kelvin’s notion about infinite resistivity at very low temperatures was incorrect. Onnes had found that at 3 K (below the transition), the normalised resistance is about 10−7. Above 4.2 K, the resistivity starts appearing again. The transition is too sharp and falls abruptly to zero within a temperature window of 10−4 K.
All superconductors are normal metals above the transition temperature. If we ask in the periodic table where most of the superconductors are located, the answer throws some surprises. The good metals are rarely superconducting
Perfect conductors, superconductors, and magnets
All superconductors are normal metals above the transition temperature. If we ask in the periodic table where most of the superconductors are located, the answer throws some surprises. The good metals are rarely superconducting. The examples are Ag, Au, Cu, Cs, etc., which have transition temperatures of the order of ∼ 0.1K, while the bad metals, such as niobium alloys, copper oxides, and 1 MgB2, have relatively larger transition temperatures. Thus, bad metals are, in general, good superconductors. An important quantity in this regard is the mean free path of the electrons. The mean free path is of the order of a few A0 for metals (above Tc), while for good metals (or the bad superconductors), it is usually a few hundred of A0. Whereas for the bad metals (good superconductors), it is still small as the electrons are strongly coupled to phonons. The orbital overlap is large in a superconductor. In good metals, the orbital overlap is small, and often they become good magnets. In the periodic table, transition elements such as the 3D series elements, namely Al, Bi, Cd, Ga, etc., become good superconductors, while Cr, Mn, and Fe are bad superconductors and in fact form good magnets. For all of them, that is, whether they are superconductors or magnets, there is a large density of states at the Fermi level. So, a lot of electronic states are necessary for the electrons in these systems to be able to condense into a superconducting state (or even a magnetic state). The nature of the electronic wave function determines whether they develop superconducting order or magnetic order. For example, electronic wavefunctions have a large spatial extent for superconductors, while they are short-range for magnets.
Meissner effect
The near-complete expulsion of the magnetic field from a superconducting specimen is called the Meissner effect. In the presence of a magnetic field, the current loops at the periphery will be generated so as to block the entry of the external field inside the specimen. If a magnetic field is allowed within a superconductor, then, by Ampere’s law, there will be normal current within the sample. However, there is no normal current inside the specimen. Thus, there can’t be any magnetic field. For this reason, superconductors are known as perfect diamagnets with very large diamagnetic susceptibility. Even the best-known diamagnets (which are non-superconductors) have magnetic susceptibilities of the order of 10−5. Thus, the diamagnetic property can be considered a distinct property of superconductors compared to zero electrical resistance.
The near-complete expulsion of the magnetic field from a superconducting specimen is called the Meissner effect
A typical experiment demonstrating the Meissner effect can be thought of as follows: Take a superconducting sample (T < Tc), sprinkle iron filings around the sample, and switch on the magnetic field. The iron filings are going to line up in concentric circles around the specimen. This implies the expulsion of the flux lines outside the sample, which makes the filings line up.
Distinction between perfect conductors and superconductors
The distinction between a perfect conductor and a superconductor is brought about by magnetic field-cooled (FC) and zero-field-cooled (ZFc) cases, as shown below in Fig. 1.
In the absence of an external magnetic field, temperature is lowered for both the metal and the superconductor in their metallic states from T > Tc to T < Tc (see left panel for both in Fig. 1). Hence, a magnetic field is applied, which eventually gets expelled owing to the Meissner effect. The field has finally been withdrawn. However, if cooling is done in the presence of an external field, after the field is withdrawn, the flux lines get trapped for a perfect conductor; however, the superconductor is left with no memory of an applied field, a situation similar to what happens in the zero-field cooling case. So, superconductors have no memory, while perfect conductors have memory.
Microscopic considerations: BCS theory
The first microscopic theory of superconductivity was proposed by Berdeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957, which earned them a Nobel Prize in 1972. The underlying assumption was that an attractive interaction between the electrons is possible, which is mediated via phonons. Thus, electrons form bound pairs under certain conditions, such as (i) two electrons in the vicinity of the filled Fermi Sea within an energy range ¯hωD (set by the phonons or lattice). (ii) The presence of phonons or the underlying lattice is confirmed by the isotope effect experiment, which confirms that the transition temperature is proportional to the mass of ions. Since the Debye frequency depends on the ionic mass, it implies that the lattice must be involved. 3 A small calculation yields that an attractive interaction is possible in a narrow range of energy. This attractive interaction causes the system to be unstable, and a long-range order develops via symmetry breaking. In a book by one of the discoverers, namely, Schrieffer, he described an analogy between a dancing floor comprising couples, dancing one with any other couple, and being completely oblivious to any other couple present in the room. The couples, while dancing, drift from one end of the room to another but do not collide with each other. This implies less dissipation in the transport of a superconductor. The BCS theory explained most of the features of the superconductors known at that time, such as (i) the discontinuity of the specific heat at the transition temperature, Tc. (ii) Involvement of the lattice via the isotope effect. (iii) Estimation of Tc and the energy gap. The value of Tc and the gap are confirmed by tunnelling experiments across metal-superconductor (M-S) or metal-insulator-superconductor (MIS) types of junctions. Giaever was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1973 for his work on these experiments. (iv) The Meissner effect can be explained within a linear response regime. (v) Temperature dependence of the energy gap, confirming gradual vanishing, which confirms a second-order phase transition. Most of the features of conventional superconductors can be explained using BCS theory. Another salient feature of the theory is that it is non-perturbative. There is no small parameter in the problem. The calculations were done with a variational theory where the energy is minimised with respect to some free parameters of the variational wavefunction, known as the BCS wavefunction.
Unconventional Superconductors: High-Tc Cuprates
This is a class of superconductors where the two-dimensional copper oxide planes play the main role, and superconductivity occurs in these planes. Doping these planes with mobile carriers makes the system unstable towards superconducting correlations. At zero doping, the system is an antiferromagnetic insulator (see Fig. 2). With about 15% to 20% doping with foreign elements, such as strontium (Sr), etc. (for example, in La2−xSrxCuO4), the system turns superconductivity. There are two things that are surprising in this regard. (i) The proximity of the insulating state to the superconducting state; (ii) For the system initially in the superconducting state, as the temperature is raised, instead of going into a metallic state, it shows several unfamiliar features that are very unlike the known Fermi liquid characteristics. It is called a strange metal.
In fact, there are some signatures of pre-formed pairs in the ‘so-called’ metallic state, known as the pseudo gap phase. Since the starting point from which one should build a theory is missing, a complete understanding of the mechanism leading to the phenomenon cannot be understood. It remained a theoretical riddle.
Space & Physics
Indian-Belgian Team Develops Portable Detectors to Image Mountains and Monuments Using Cosmic Rays
Portable cosmic-ray detectors could help researchers examine mountains, tunnels and historical monuments without invasive procedures, opening new possibilities for scientific imaging and infrastructure inspection.
An international team of researchers from India and Belgium has developed portable particle detectors that could help scientists examine the interiors of mountains, tunnels and historical monuments without damaging them. The technology uses naturally occurring cosmic-ray particles to map variations in the density of objects, offering a potential approach to non-invasive imaging of large structures.
The detectors, developed using glass-based Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs), achieved a particle-detection efficiency exceeding 95% during testing, according to a report published by Research Matters on October 24, 2026. The findings demonstrate the potential of compact detector systems to investigate dense materials and support future applications in geology, archaeology and infrastructure assessment.
The collaboration includes researchers from India’s National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Bhubaneswar, and the Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI), alongside researchers from Belgian institutions, including Université catholique de Louvain and the Inter-University Institute for High Energies.
How cosmic rays reveal hidden structures
The technology uses muons, high-energy particles produced when cosmic rays interact with Earth’s atmosphere. These particles continuously reach the Earth’s surface and can penetrate substantial thicknesses of rock, concrete and other materials.
As muons travel through an object, some are absorbed or deflected depending on its density and thickness. By measuring the number and trajectories of particles passing through a structure, researchers can identify variations in internal density and reconstruct images of otherwise inaccessible areas.
The technique, known as muography, is comparable in principle to X-ray imaging, but uses naturally occurring particles instead of an artificial radiation source. It has previously been used to investigate geological formations, including volcanoes, and to explore archaeological structures.
However, conventional muon detectors can be bulky, difficult to transport and challenging to operate in remote locations. The new glass-based detectors aim to address some of these limitations through a compact design and sealed operation, reducing dependence on continuous gas supplies.
Testing the detector system
The researchers developed three glass RPC prototypes using thin glass electrodes separated by gas-filled gaps. When a muon passes through a chamber, it ionises the gas, generating an electrical signal that can be recorded to determine the particle’s position.
Electronic readout systems capture these signals and help reconstruct the trajectories of incoming particles. During testing, the detectors achieved an efficiency exceeding 95%, with a timing resolution of approximately 1.8 nanoseconds, according to the research report.
To examine the system’s ability to detect dense materials, the team conducted an absorption experiment using one prototype. During an open-sky measurement, researchers recorded nearly 55,000 muon tracks. After placing a lead block in the experimental setup, the recorded count fell to 30,894, demonstrating how dense material reduced the number of particles reaching the detector.
Representational image.Image credit:Pexels
The experiment provided proof of principle that the system could measure muon attenuation and support radiographic imaging. However, imaging complex structures such as mountains or monuments requires measurements from multiple directions and further computational reconstruction.
Applications and challenges ahead
Portable muon detectors could eventually help researchers investigate hidden cavities, examine geological formations, inspect tunnels and study the internal structures of historical monuments. Engineers could also explore their application in assessing infrastructure such as dams and bridges, although these uses would require additional testing and validation.
For cultural heritage conservation, muography could offer a valuable alternative where drilling or other invasive investigations risk damaging fragile structures. A 2025 review published in iScience highlighted the technique’s potential as a complementary, non-destructive method for studying cultural heritage objects, while noting that the relatively low flux of naturally occurring muons can require lengthy data-collection periods.
The technology is not yet a universal replacement for existing inspection methods. Its practical application will depend on factors such as spatial resolution, detector size, measurement duration and the complexity of the structure being examined.
The researchers have proposed further improvements, including lighter structural materials, larger detector areas and enhanced readout systems. These developments could make the detectors easier to deploy and improve the quality of reconstructed images.
Space & Physics
How Scientists Traced the Flow of Matter Around a Dead Star Using X-rays
By studying changes in X-ray signals from Centaurus X-3, researchers at Bengaluru’s Raman Research Institute have found evidence of an unusual way in which matter reaches a neutron star. The discovery could change how scientists explain the radiation coming from this distant system.
When a massive star dies, its core can collapse into an extremely dense object called a neutron star. Despite being only about the size of a city, it can have a mass comparable to that of the Sun. Its powerful gravity can pull matter away from a nearby companion star, releasing energy in the form of X-rays as the material falls towards it.
Scientists at Bengaluru’s Raman Research Institute (RRI) have studied these X-ray signals from Centaurus X-3, a star system about 24,000 light-years from Earth. By examining changes in the signals, the researchers identified a stream of matter flowing towards the neutron star and found evidence of a rotating disk of material around it. This is an unusual finding because such disks are not commonly expected in this type of star system. The discovery could help scientists better understand how matter moves around neutron stars and how these distant objects produce X-rays.
Star That Pulls in Matter
Centaurus X-3 is in the constellation Centaurus. It belongs to a class of systems known as high-mass X-ray binaries. These systems contain a neutron star and a massive companion star held together by gravity.
A neutron star forms when the core of a massive star collapses at the end of its life. It packs roughly the Sun’s mass into a sphere only about the size of a city. Its gravity is so strong that it can pull in material from a nearby companion star. As this material falls towards the neutron star, it releases enormous amounts of energy, including X-rays. Scientists study this radiation to understand how the material behaves and how the system works.
Centaurus X-3 is also a pulsar. Its neutron star rotates and sends out radiation from regions near its magnetic poles. As the star spins, these beams sweep across space. When a beam passes an observing satellite, the satellite detects a pulse of radiation, much as a lighthouse produces a repeating flash as it turns. These regular pulses provide scientists with a way to study the neutron star and its surroundings.
What the Changing Signals Revealed
The radiation from Centaurus X-3 does not come only from the neutron star itself. Some of it interacts with nearby material, including the surface of the companion star, gas flowing away from it and matter surrounding the neutron star. This material absorbs radiation and emits it again. Scientists call this secondary radiation.
Changes in this radiation can help researchers work out what is happening around the neutron star. However, Centaurus X-3 is so far away that telescopes cannot clearly distinguish its surrounding structures. It appears as a single point of light. Scientists must therefore piece together the system’s structure from the signals they receive.
Earlier observations had shown that the intensity of certain secondary X-ray emission lines changed as the neutron star rotated. An emission line is a feature in a spectrum that can reveal information about the material producing or interacting with the radiation. A research team led by Kinjal Roy of RRI examined four such emission lines in detail. The researchers found that the structure producing these changes must be rotating along with the neutron star.
The pattern helped them identify the likely source which is a stream of matter moving towards the neutron star.
Following the stream of matter
This stream is part of a process called accretion, in which a compact object draws in material from its surroundings. In Centaurus X-3, the stream carries matter from an accretion disk towards the neutron star. The disk is a rotating structure of gas and other material that moves around the star before being drawn inwards. The neutron star’s magnetic field then guides the incoming matter towards its magnetic poles.
The stream also changes what an observing satellite sees. As it moves around the neutron star, it can come between the satellite and the star, partially blocking the direct radiation. When this happens, the primary X-ray signal weakens. At the same time, radiation from the stream itself becomes stronger in the observed signal.
The researchers used these changing signals to connect the observed variations to the movement of matter around the neutron star. The evidence for an accretion stream also points to an accretion disk feeding it. This matters because scientists generally expect high-mass X-ray binaries to gather material in a different way.
Why an accretion disk matters
In many high-mass X-ray binaries, a neutron star captures gas directly from the stream of material blown away by its companion star. This is known as stellar-wind accretion. An accretion disk involves a different arrangement: material gathers into a rotating structure before flowing towards the neutron star. The findings from Centaurus X-3 indicate that this disk-based process is taking place in a system where it is not generally expected.
That difference matters when scientists calculate how the system produces and releases radiation. If their models leave out the disk, they may fail to account for some of the radiation coming from the surrounding material.
“Accretion disk is not expected to occur in [HMXBs] So, if an accretion disk is forming in this system, emission models have to be modified,” Roy said in the Department of Science and Technology’s announcement. He added that future models of Centaurus X-3 would need to account for radiation from the disk.
The research does not mean that scientists have directly photographed the disk. Instead, they have used the changing X-ray signals to infer the presence and behaviour of structures that remain too distant to resolve clearly. Published in The Astrophysical Journal, the study adds to the understanding of Centaurus X-3, one of the most widely studied binary pulsars. It also shows how small changes in radiation can reveal the movement of matter around objects that are otherwise beyond the reach of direct observation.
By identifying the flow responsible for the changing signals, the researchers have provided a more detailed picture of how this neutron star draws in material. That picture will help scientists refine their models of Centaurus X-3 and examine whether similar processes occur in other high-mass X-ray binaries.
Space & Physics
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