Space & Physics
What brought carbon to Earth
This marks the first time a complex form of carbon essential for life on Earth has been observed outside the solar system. To learn more about the significance of this discovery, EdPublica interviewed the researchers behind the study– Gabi Wenzel, Ilsa Cooke, and Brett McGuire, who shared their insights on the implications of pyrene’s presence in space and its potential impact on our understanding of star and planet formation
A team led by researchers at MIT has detected pyrene, a complex carbon-containing molecule, in a distant interstellar cloud. This finding opens new avenues for understanding the chemical origins of our solar system. Pyrene, a type of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), was found in a molecular cloud similar to the one from which our solar system formed.
This marks the first time a complex form of carbon essential for life on Earth has been observed outside the solar system. Its discovery sheds light on how the compounds necessary for life could originate in space. The team detected pyrene in
a star-forming region known as the Taurus Molecular Cloud, located 430 light-years away, making it one of the closest such clouds to Earth.
This discovery also aligns with recent findings from the asteroid Ryugu, suggesting that pyrene may have played a key role in the carbon composition of the early solar system. To learn more about the significance of this discovery, EdPublica interviewed the researchers behind the study– Gabi Wenzel, Ilsa Cooke, and Brett McGuire, who shared their insights on the implications of pyrene’s presence in space and its potential impact on our understanding of star and planet formation. Brett McGuire is an assistant professor of chemistry at MIT, Ilsa Cooke is an assistant professor of chemistry at the University of British Columbia, and Gabi Wenzel is a postdoctoral researcher in McGuire’s group at MIT.
Below, the team responds to questions from EdPublica Editor Dipin Damodharan about this unexpected and exciting discovery.
‘Pyrene could be a major source of carbon in our solar system’
Q: How does the discovery of pyrene in TMC-1 enhance our understanding of the chemical inventory that contributed to the formation of our solar system?
Gabi Wenzel:
Stars much like our own sun are born from dense molecular clouds. The discovery of pyrene in a molecular cloud called TMC-1, one that might be very similar to our sun’s natal cloud and which will go on to form a star of its own, significantly enhances our understanding of the chemical inventory that contributed to the formation of our own solar system. As a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), pyrene is one of the most complex organic molecules found in early molecular clouds, suggesting that the building blocks of organic matter were available in the environments where stars and their orbiting (exo)planets form.
This discovery sheds light on the chemical processes occurring in interstellar space, including gas-phase and surface reactions on dust grains, which are crucial for the evolution of organic chemistry. This further supports the notion that the primordial materials of our solar system contained a diverse range of organic compounds, providing insights into the potential for prebiotic chemistry on a young Earth and planetesimals.
Q: What specific challenges did you face in detecting pyrene, given that it is invisible to traditional radio astronomy methods, and how did the use of cyanopyrene help overcome these challenges?
Gabi Wenzel:
Pyrene, a fully symmetric PAH, does not possess a permanent electric dipole moment and hence is invisible in radio astronomical observations or rotational spectrometers in the laboratory. The CN radical is highly abundant in the cold and dark molecular cloud TMC-1, an environment that is about 10 K cold and in which you’d assume little chemistry to happen. However, earlier experimental works have shown that the CN addition (followed by hydrogen abstraction) to ringed hydrocarbon species such as benzene and toluene at low temperatures is a barrierless process.
Adding a CN (nitrile) group to a hydrocarbon will drastically increase its permanent electric dipole moment and so allow rotational transitions. Indeed, several CN-functionalized species have been detected in TMC-1 and other sources, among which the CN-substituted benzene (cyanobenzene or benzonitrile) and other smaller PAHs, with cyanopyrene being the largest molecule found via radio astronomy to date, allowing us to infer the presence of pyrene itself.
Q: Can you elaborate on what it means for our understanding of carbon sources in the solar system that pyrene is found in both TMC-1 and asteroid Ryugu?
Ilsa Cooke:
TMC-1 is a famous example of a cold molecular cloud, one of the earliest stages of star and planet formation, while asteroids like Ryugu represent snapshots of later stages in the formation of solar systems. Asteroids are formed from material in the solar nebula that was inherited from the molecular cloud stage. Our radio observations of TMC-1 let us observe pyrene early on and possibly under conditions where it is first forming. Isotope signatures of the pyrene in Ryugu suggest it was formed in a cold interstellar cloud. From these two unique sets of measurements, we can start to unravel the inheritance of pyrene, and PAHs more generally, from their birth in interstellar space and their journey to new planets. If PAHs can survive all the way from the molecular cloud stage, they may provide planets with an important source of organic carbon.
Q: What are the different formation routes of PAHs that your research suggests, and how do these differ from previous hypotheses about PAH formation in space?
Ilsa Cooke:
Our results, combined with those of Zeichner et al., who measured pyrene in Ryugu, suggest that pyrene may form at low temperatures by “bottom-up” routes in molecular clouds. Previously, PAHs were most commonly associated with formation in high-temperature (ca. 1000 K) environments in the envelopes of dying stars. These stars are thought to eject their PAHs, along with other carbon-rich molecules, into the diffuse interstellar medium.
However, the diffuse medium is a tenuous, harsh environment permeated by ultraviolet photons, and most astrochemists think that small PAHs would not survive their journey through the diffuse medium into dense molecular clouds. So we are still left with a puzzle: does that pyrene that we observe in TMC-1 form there, or was it formed somewhere else but it was able to survive its journey more efficiently than previously thought? If the pyrene is indeed formed within TMC-1, we do not yet know the chemical mechanism. Many possibilities exist, so close collaborations between laboratory astrochemists and observers will be critical to answer this question.
Q: What are your plans for investigating larger PAH molecules in TMC-1, and what specific hypotheses are you looking to test with these investigations?
Brett McGuire:
We have a number of other targets lined up – again focusing on PAH structures that should show this special stability demonstrated by pyrene. They present the same experimental challenges, including needing to devise appropriate synthetic routes in the laboratory before collecting their spectra. The major question is just how complex the PAH inventory actually gets at this earliest stage of star formation.
Prior to our work in TMC-1, nearly everything we knew about PAHs came from infrared observations of bulk properties in much warmer and more energetic regions, where PAHs are thought to be much larger. Does the population in TMC-1 look the same as in these regions? Is it at an earlier stage of chemical evolution? And how does this distribution compare to what we see in our own Solar System?
Q: How do your findings about pyrene and PAHs in interstellar clouds influence our broader understanding of organic chemistry in the universe, particularly in relation to the origins of life?
Brett McGuire:
Life as we know it depends on carbon – it is the backbone upon which all our molecular structures are constructed. Yet, the Earth overall is somewhat depleted in carbon relative to what we’d naively expect, and we still don’t fully understand where the carbon we do have came from originally. PAHs in general seem to be a massive reservoir of reactive carbon, and what we are now seeing is that that reservoir is already present at the earliest stages of star-formation. Combined with the evidence from Ryugu, we’re now also seeing indications that the inventory of PAHs, and thus this reservoir of carbon, may actually survive from this dark molecular cloud phase through the formation of a star to be eventually incorporated into the planetary system itself.
Space & Physics
India’s New Satellite Will Be Tested During Disasters
India’s latest Earth-observation satellite, EOS-05, could give disaster agencies a broader and more frequent view of floods, landslides and other hazards. But its real value will depend on how quickly satellite data can be turned into information that helps authorities act on the ground.
When a flood spreads or a landslide cuts off a village, one of the first things authorities need is a clear picture of what has happened. India’s newest Earth-observation satellite could help close part of that information gap. Which areas are under water? Which roads are still open? Where are people stranded? Ground teams may be unable to reach affected areas, while conditions can change faster than assessments can be completed.
On September 4, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched GSLV-F17 carrying EOS-05, which ISRO describes as India’s first imaging satellite designed for geosynchronous orbit. The satellite was placed into a sub-geosynchronous transfer orbit before its subsequent orbital operations.
The launch is a technological milestone. But its larger significance may be in how India uses the satellite once it is in operation.
Seeing a Disaster From Above
Earth-observation data already play a role in India’s disaster management. ISRO’s systems are used for applications including flood mapping, damage assessment and emergency management, while the National Database for Emergency Management brings together geospatial information for disaster agencies.
EOS-05 adds a different capability because of its orbit. A geosynchronous satellite can repeatedly observe a broad region as the Earth rotates. That makes it possible to monitor large areas without relying entirely on a satellite making another pass over the location.
During a flood, that could help authorities understand the extent of inundation. After a landslide, imagery could contribute to assessing affected terrain. The same Earth-observation infrastructure has applications in agriculture, water resources, forestry and urban planning. But the satellite itself is not the solution.
The Real Test is Speed
There is a long distance between an image captured in space and a decision made in a district control room. Data have to be received, processed and interpreted. The resulting information has to reach officials and emergency teams quickly enough to matter. That is particularly important when disasters are unfolding by the hour.
A satellite cannot rescue people or reopen a blocked road. What it can do is help authorities decide where those efforts are most urgently needed.
That distinction is important. The value of space technology in disaster management is not simply that it produces better images. It is that those images can potentially reduce the time needed to understand what is happening on the ground.
From Mapping Damage to Managing Risk
India’s disaster landscape makes that capability increasingly relevant. Floods can spread across districts, while landslides can isolate mountain communities with little warning. Cyclones, forest fires and extreme rainfall can also leave authorities trying to assess large areas at once.
Satellite observation cannot predict every such event. But combined with weather forecasts, river-level data, ground reports and geographic information, it can provide a fuller picture of how a disaster is unfolding. That is where EOS-05 could become more than another addition to India’s satellite fleet.
The real measure of its success will not be the launch itself, or even the quality of the images it produces. It will be whether those images reach the right people quickly enough to change what happens on the ground. Because in a disaster, seeing more is useful only if it helps authorities act faster and act in the right place.
Space & Physics
India’s Moonshot Moment: Can New Delhi Turn Orbit Into Influence
India’s space mission is entering a new era, from Gaganyaan and space stations to private startups, space diplomacy and national security.
Gaganyaan is only the beginning. India’s space mission faces new opportunities and challenges as human spaceflight, diplomacy, private industry and security reshape its ambitions beyond Earth.
Indian human space programme Gaganyaan is mooted by Indian Space Research Organisation. This ambitious space mission aims to send Indian astronauts in Outer Space indigenously by the proactive leadership of the Indian government. India as a leading space power of the world aims to demonstrate her space capabilities and research in the final frontier. The Gaganyaan mission is the dream of 1.4 billion Indians. The programme will be initiated in 2027 creating a historic mark in the collective space exploration journeys. This is a stepping stone as NASA is envisioning to make Moon as the next base for active space programmes by 2030.
According to NASA this spectacular feat will be achieved soon within 3 years. NASA has asked India’s ISRO to join for the permanent Lunar base in the south pole of Moon. Here comes the significance of Indo-US space partnership and how India will navigate through the space diplomacy keeping in mind of Indian dream of Bharatiya Antariksh Station and the long lasting commitment to strategic autonomy and an independent foreign policy. India already signed the Artemis accords in June 2023. If India is ready to be part of this initiative, it will mark the beginning of a new era in India-United States space cooperation. The question is how India will navigate this process, protecting its sovereignty and national interest while engaging with NASA to help build a new civilisation of space travellers on the lunar surface. According to media reports India’s spectacular success with the Chandrayaan missions has led the United States to choose India as a natural partner, inviting it to join space exploration programmes on the Moon.
India’s Space Mission: The Next Frontier of Global Power
The Gaganyaan mission is significant for strengthening Indian space station’s vision. The Bharatiya Antariksh Station is an Indian space station which is a symbol of Indian space nationalism and a centre for joint research with friendly nations. India is actively pushing for space diplomacy and it is evident from the trainings received by Gaganyaan crew members. They have trained in Russia and the United States, continuing India’s commitment to strong bilateral ties with both Cold War-era rivals. Space exploration and travel are combined with diplomacy, as Indian foreign policy in a multipolar world order pushes for strong partnerships with both Russia and the United States.
Indian Air Force veteran Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma was the first Indian cosmonaut to reach the final frontier, in a Soviet space mission. Following this historic feat, Kalpana Chawla and Sunita Williams travelled to outer space on American missions. Recently, Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla represented India in the Axiom mission successfully travelling to International Space Station and returned safely as a national hero. He is also part of the Gaganyaan mission. Colonel Anil Menon, who is part of the US Space Force, is also now in outer space. He has strong Indian connections, making him the first astronaut with roots in Kerala to explore the domain of outer space.
With privatisation in outer space in India, Skyroot Aerospace, a private company based in Hyderabad, successfully launched Vikram-1 rocket to low Earth orbit. Thus India is taking leverage of the infinite possibilities chasing stars and galaxies. Indian space ambitions are at a historic juncture now, with over 400 private Space startups. Another mission is aiming for a reusable re-entry vehicle, targeted for launch in 2027, building on ISRO’s success with the Pushpak mission, the Reusable Launch Vehicle Landing Experiment, in 2024.
However, there are concerns in India’s space sector, with many ISRO scientists seeking early retirement. The efficiency of major projects like Aditya and Gaganyaan should not be affected by this. Former ISRO Chairman G Madhavan Nair shared his concerns with the media about bureaucratisation within the organisation. ISRO is a symbol of India’s space story which is filled with resilience and strength of great visionary leaders like Dr Vikram Sarabhai and Dr APJ Abdul Kalam. Unfortunately, there have been budgetary cuts to major ISRO space projects. The government’s focus on Viksit Bharat, a holistically developed India, is only possible with investment in science and technology, and in-depth research in the domain of outer space.
Outer space is militarised, and the race for resource nationalism is a reality. For India to emerge as a global power, investment in space exploration is inevitable. Nations are increasingly aware of the strategic use of outer space for securing national interests. Satellites with civilian and national security purposes are critical assets of any nation. India too has many civilian and strategic assets in outer space, and protecting these is the responsibility of the government. The anti-satellite test Mission Shakti is a milestone demonstrating India’s hard-power capabilities in outer space. Some nations have capabilities such as laser-guided weapons, which can disable or destroy an enemy’s assets during conflict. Space is a key domain for ensuring seamless communication and intelligence-sharing during both war and peace.
Intelligence and surveillance are key factors in winning the wars of the present and future. The dominance in space technology and information superiority will determine the victories of nations fighting for their national interest.
In India, the share of higher education in the annual budgetary allocation remains low. A young generation passionate to explore arenas of space science is to be inculcated with the right mindset. Allocation of funds in education sector is a key requirement for building a strong India with educated and skilled youth. ISRO’s active collaboration with 100 Atal Tinkering Labs is a positive step in inculcating the spirit of scientific enquiry at the grassroots level. Support and encouragement for students in the creative arts and sciences is the need of the hour. Atal Tinkering Labs and India’s startup ecosystem can achieve greater synergy, ensuring a seamless transition from school life to entrepreneurship, from plan to execution.
Human activity has actively degraded the ecosystem, impacting life on both land and water. Now, with active competition in the arena of outer space, space debris is a serious global security challenge. This debris travels swiftly in outer space, damaging active space assets including civilian and defence satellites. The young budding scientists of India need to re-invent and discover practical solutions to the pressing global challenge of space debris and work with relentless passion for making a strong and stable India.
Space & Physics
Meteorite Dust Reveals Evidence of Magnetic Field in the Young Solar System
A magnetic field in the early solar system has been detected in ancient meteorite grains, offering evidence that magnetism helped shape the young sun.
Ancient grains in an Antarctic meteorite reveal evidence of a magnetic field in early solar system, suggesting magnetism helped shape the young sun
Tiny mineral grains preserved inside an ancient meteorite have recorded evidence of a magnetic field that existed during the earliest stages of the solar system, suggesting that magnetism, alongside gravity, helped shape the young sun and its surrounding disk of gas and dust.
Ancient Meteorite Records Reveal a Magnetic Field in the Early Solar System
Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) examined microscopic grains in a meteorite recovered from Antarctica and found traces of ancient magnetism dating to the first 200,000 years of solar system history. The findings provide what researchers describe as the earliest known evidence of a magnetic field in the infant solar system.
The study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, challenges the view that gravity alone drove the transformation of the early solar system from a cloud of gas and dust into a flattened disk that eventually produced the sun and planets.
“This transition, from a spherical cloud to a protoplanetary disk, is one of the most significant events in all of solar system history,” said Benjamin Weiss, professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at MIT, in a statement issued. Measurements from the study, he said, indicate that magnetism likely played a role.
Magnetic records preserved in meteorite grains
The researchers studied DOM 08006, a primitive meteorite discovered in 2008 in the Dominion Range of Antarctica. The meteorite contains calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions, or CAIs, which formed during the earliest period of solar system development.
CAIs are among the oldest known solid materials from the solar system. Some of the grains contain magnetic minerals that can preserve the imprint of a magnetic field present when they formed.
The team isolated tiny grains from the meteorite and subjected them to a series of tests to determine whether they retained remanent magnetisation — a lasting record of an earlier magnetic field.
The researchers found evidence of a magnetic field with an estimated strength of about 150 to 600 microteslas. That is roughly three to 12 times stronger than Earth’s magnetic field today.
The preservation of these records was possible because DOM 08006 appears to have undergone relatively little alteration during its long history.
“Other meteorites went through many different processes over this 4.5 billion year history,” Weiss said. “But somehow, DOM has experienced less alteration than any other meteorite.”
Magnetism before the planets
Scientists already had evidence of magnetic fields in the solar system several million years after its formation, when the sun had formed and the planets were beginning to take shape.
The new measurements push that evidence much further back — to a period when the solar system was still a collapsing cloud of gas and dust and the sun itself was beginning to form.
In the early solar system, electrically charged particles moving through the developing disk could have generated a magnetic field. That field may then have influenced the movement of gas and material towards the central star.
The researchers argue that magnetism therefore needs to be considered alongside gravity when reconstructing how the early solar system evolved.
“We think these kinds of magnetic fields were helping to move gas from the protoplanetary disk, in toward this central star, the sun,” said Cauê Borlina, the study’s first author and now an assistant professor at Purdue University.
The findings do not replace gravity as the main force shaping the early solar system. Instead, they suggest that magnetic fields were another important part of the physical processes that brought material together and helped the young sun grow.
The study was led by Borlina, with Weiss, Elias Mansbach and Nilanjan Chatterjee of MIT, along with researchers from Tsinghua University, the University of Cambridge, Caltech and the University of California, Los Angeles
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