Space & Physics

In search for red aurorae in ancient Japan

Ryuho Kataoka, a Japanese auroral scientist, played a seminal role in searching for evidence of super-geomagnetic storms in the past using historical methods

Published

10 months ago

February 5, 2024

Karthik Vinod

Professor Ryuho Kataoka in his office at NIPR, with the fan-shaped painting behind him, Picture courtesy: RK Works

Auroras seen on Earth are the end of a complex process that begins with a violent, dynamic process deep within the sun’s interior.

However, studying the depths of the sun is no easy task, even for scientists. The best they can do is to observe the surface using space-based telescopes. One problem that scientists are attempting to solve is how a super-geomagnetic storm on Earth comes to being. These geomagnetic storms find their roots in sunspots, that are acne-like depressions on the sun’s surface. As the sun approaches the peak of its 11-year solar cycle, these sunspots, numbering in the hundreds, occasionally release all that stored magnetic energy into deep space, in the form of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (which are hot wisps of gas superheated to thousands of degrees).

If the earth lies in the path of an oncoming CME, the energy release from their resultant magnetic field alignment can cause intense geomagnetic storms and aurorae on Earth.

This phenomenon, which is astrophysical and also electromagnetic in nature, can have serious repercussions for our modern technological society.

Super-geomagnetic storms, a particularly worse form of geomagnetic storm, can induce power surges in our infrastructure, causing power outages that can plunge the world into darkness, and can cause irreversible damages to our infrastructure. The last recorded super-geomagnetic storm event occurred more than 150 years ago. Known as the Carrington event, the storm destroyed telegraph lines across North America and Europe in 1859. The risk for a Carrington-class event to happen again was estimated to be 1 in 500-years, which is quite low, but based on limited data. Ramifications are extremely dangerous if it were to ever happen.

However, in the past decade, it was learnt that such super-geomagnetic storms are much more common than scientists had figured. To top it all, it wasn’t just science, but it was a valuable contribution by art – specifically ancient Japanese and Chinese historical records that shaped our modern understanding of super-geomagnetic storms.

Ryuho Kataoka, a Japanese space physicist, played a seminal role in searching for evidence of super-geomagnetic storms in the past using historical methods. He is presently an associate professor in physics, holding positions at Japan’s National Institute of Polar Research, and The Graduate University for Advanced Studies.

“There is no modern digital dataset to identify extreme space weather events, particularly super-geomagnetic storms,” said Professor Kataoka. “If you have good enough data, we can input them into supercomputers to do physics-based simulation.”

However, sunspot records go until the late 18th century when sunspots were actively being cataloged. In an effort to fill the data gap, Professor Kataoka decided to be at the helm of a very new but promising interdisciplinary field combining the arts with space physics. “The data is limited by at least 50 years,” said Professor Kataoka. “So we decided to search for these red vapor events in Japanese history, and see the occurrence patterns … and if we are lucky enough, we can see detailed features in these lights, pictures or drawings.” Until the summer of 2015, Ryuho Kataoka wasn’t aware of how vast ancient Japanese and Chinese history records really were.

“There is no modern digital dataset to identify extreme space weather events, particularly super-geomagnetic storms,” said Professor Kataoka.

In the past 7 years, he’s researched a very specific red aurora, in documents extending to more than 1400 years. “Usually, auroras are known for their green colors – but during the geomagnetic storm, the situation is very different,” he said. “Red is of course unusual, but we can only see red during a powerful geomagnetic storm, especially in lower latitudes. From a scientific perspective, it’s a very reasonable way to search for red signs in historical documents.”

A vast part of these historical red aurora studies that Professor Kataoka researched came from literature explored in the last decade by the AURORA-4D collaboration. “The project title included “4D”, because we wanted to access records dating back 400 years back during the Edo period,” said Professor Kataoka.

“From the paintings, we can identify the latitude of the aurora, and calculate the magnitude or amplitude of the geomagnetic storm.” Clearly, paintings in the Edo period influenced Professor Kataoka’s line of research, for a copy of the fan-shaped red aurora painting from the manuscript Seikai (which translates to ‘stars’) hangs on the window behind his office desk at the National Institute of Polar Research.

The painting fascinated Professor Kataoka, since it depicted an aurora that originated during a super-geomagnetic storm over Kyoto in 1770. However, the painting did surprise him at first, since he wondered whether the radial patterns in the painting were real, or a mere artistic touch to make it look fierier. “That painting was special because this was the most detailed painting preserved in Japan,” remarked Professor Kataoka. “I took two years to study this, thinking this appearance was silly as an aurorae scientist. But when I calculated the field pattern from Kyoto towards the North, it was actually correct!”

Fan-shaped red aurora painting from the ‘Seikai’, dated 17th September, 1770; Picture Courtesy: Matsusaka City, Mie Prefecture.

The possibility to examine and verify historical accounts using science is also a useful incentive for scholars of Japanese literature and scientists partaking in the research.

“This is important because, if we scientists look at the real National Treasure with our eyes, we really know these sightings recorded were real,” said Professor Kataoka. “The internet is really bad for a survey because it can easily be very fake,” he said laughing. It’s not just the nature in which science was used to examine art – to examine Japanese “national treasures” that is undoubtedly appealing, but historical accounts themselves have contributed to scientific research directly.

“From our studies, we can say that the Carrington class events are more frequent than we previously expected,” said Professor Kataoka. There was a sense of pride in him as he said this. “This Carrington event is not a 1 in 200-year event, but as frequent as 1 in 100 years.” Given how electricity is the lifeblood of the 21st century, these heightened odds do ingrain a rather dystopian society in the future, that is ravaged by a super-geomagnetic storm.

Professor Kataoka’s work has found attention within the space physics community. Jonathon Eastwood, Professor of Physics at Imperial College London said to EdPublica, “The idea to use historical information and art like this is very inventive because these events are so rare and so don’t exist as information in the standard scientific record.”

There’s no physical harm from a geomagnetic storm, but the threat to global power supply and electronics is being increasingly recognized by world governments. The UK, for instance, identified “space weather” as a natural hazard in its 2011 National Risk Register. In the years that followed, the government set up a space weather division in the Met Office, the UK’s foremost weather forecasting authority, to monitor and track occurrences of these coronal mass ejections. However, these forecasts, which often supplement American predictions – namely the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – have failed to specify previously where a magnetic storm could brew on Earth, or predict whether a coronal mass ejection would ever actually strike the Earth.

The former occurred during the evacuation process for Hurricane Irma in 2017, when amateur radio ham operators experienced the effects of a radio blackout when a magnetic storm affected the communications network across the Caribbean. The latter occurred on another occasion when a rocket launch for SpaceX’s Starlink communication satellites was disrupted by a mild geomagnetic storm, costing SpaceX a loss of over $40 million.

Professor Kataoka said he wishes space physicists from other countries participate in similar interdisciplinary collaborations to explore their native culture’s historical records for red aurora sightings. He said the greatest limitation of the AURORA-4D collaboration was the lack of historical records from other parts of the world. China apparently boasts a history of aurora records longer than Japan, with a history lasting before Christ himself. “Being Japanese, I’m not familiar with British, Finnish or Vietnamese cultures,” said Professor Kataoka. “But every country has literature researchers and scientists who can easily collaborate and perform interdisciplinary research.” And by doing so, it’s not just science which benefits from it, but so is ancient art whose beauty and relevance gains longevity.

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Karthik Vinod

Karthik is a science writer, and co-founder of Ed Publica. He writes and edits the science page. He's also a freelance journalist, with words in The Hindu, a prominent national newspaper in India.

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Space & Physics

Moon’s clocks are ticking faster than Earth’s

A new study reveals that Moon’s clocks are ticking faster than Earth’s, and it offers implications for new angles to the space exploration

Published

1 day ago

December 2, 2024

EP Staff

Image by Sergio Serjão from Pixabay

Clocks on the Moon tick slightly faster than those on Earth, a new study reveals. It has significant implications for future space missions. Specifically, clocks placed near the Moon gain an additional 56.02 microseconds per day compared to those on Earth. Thanks to Albert Einstein. This phenomenon can be attributed to Einstein’s theory of relativity, which states that both gravity and speed influence the passage of time.

Einstein’s theory states that time is not a constant; it varies depending on the strength of gravitational fields and the speed at which an object is moving. The study highlights how this effect plays out in the Moon’s environment, where the weaker gravitational field compared to Earth causes time to pass slightly faster.

As humanity prepares for more frequent missions to the Moon, Mars, and other celestial bodies, understanding these variations in timekeeping becomes crucial. The time discrepancies, although minute, can impact everything from navigation and communication to the synchronization of systems across multiple platforms. Space missions rely on precise timing to maintain their operations, and any slight difference in time could have significant consequences.

The Lagrange Points

The study, published in The Astronomical Journal, also points out the behaviour of clocks positioned at Lagrange points—specific regions in space where gravitational forces from two large bodies, like Earth and the Moon, balance out. These points are particularly important for future space exploration as they could serve as staging areas or refueling stations for spacecraft traveling between Earth and the Moon.

Lagrange points offer stable environments for spacecraft to dock, making them prime candidates for mission planning. As such, understanding time at these locations is essential to ensure synchronization between spacecraft and lunar bases.

Time Matters

Time is a critical factor in space exploration for several reasons. First, it underpins the functioning of communication systems. Long-distance communication between Earth and distant missions often faces delays due to the vast distances involved. Additionally, varying gravitational effects between locations in space can lead to further time discrepancies. Understanding how time behaves in these contexts ensures that systems can be adjusted accordingly to maintain reliable communication.

Second, precise timing is essential for navigation. Spacecraft must be carefully synchronized to avoid collisions and to successfully carry out maneuvers, such as landing on the Moon or Mars. Without accurate timekeeping, the success of these operations could be jeopardized.

Finally, as lunar bases and spacecraft rely on different timing systems, harmonizing these clocks will be essential for smooth operations. Coordination between various space systems, both human and robotic, will be vital as we push further into space exploration.

Know The Scientist

Pierre Curie: The precision of a scientific pioneer

Pierre Curie is perhaps best known for his work on magnetism

Published

2 weeks ago

November 22, 2024

EP Staff

Pierre Curie image source: Wikimedia Commons

Pierre Curie (1859–1906) was a man whose legacy has shaped the course of modern science, yet his name is often overshadowed by that of his famous wife, Marie Curie. Despite this, Pierre’s contributions to physics, particularly in the field of magnetism and the discovery of radioactivity, were revolutionary and continue to influence scientific research today.

Early Life and Education

Born in Paris on May 15, 1859, Pierre Curie grew up in an intellectually stimulating environment. His father, Eugene, was a physician, and his mother, Sophie, was a teacher, which cultivated in Pierre a deep passion for learning. From an early age, Pierre showed an exceptional aptitude for mathematics and physics, subjects that would later define his career.

By the time Pierre was 16, he had already completed his studies in mathematics and physics, earning a degree from the prestigious Sorbonne University in Paris. This early foundation in scientific inquiry laid the groundwork for his future innovations.

In 1895 together with his brother Jacques Curie, Pierre Curie developed the Curie point—the temperature at which certain magnetic materials lose their magnetism

Innovative Work in Magnetism and Crystallography

Pierre Curie is perhaps best known for his work on magnetism. In 1895, together with his brother Jacques Curie, he developed the Curie point—the temperature at which certain magnetic materials lose their magnetism. This work, foundational in the study of thermodynamics and magnetism, continues to be a key concept in modern physics.

Additionally, Pierre Curie’s research in crystallography and his study of the magnetic properties of materials played a pivotal role in the development of solid-state physics. His work laid the foundation for understanding the relationship between a material’s structure and its magnetic properties, which remains essential in materials science today.

The Discovery of Radioactivity

However, Pierre Curie’s most significant contribution came from his work on radioactivity, which would forever alter the understanding of matter itself. In the late 19th century, the mysterious rays emitted by certain substances, like uranium, intrigued scientists. Working alongside his wife, Marie Curie, Pierre embarked on a series of experiments to better understand this phenomenon.

Their work, starting in 1898, led to the discovery of two new elements: polonium and radium. Marie Curie coined the term “radioactivity” to describe the spontaneous emission of radiation from these elements, but it was Pierre’s precise experimental methods and scientific rigor that helped bring clarity to the phenomenon. Their discovery of radium, in particular, was a breakthrough that would lead to numerous advancements in medical treatments, including cancer therapy.

Nobel Recognition and Collaboration with Marie Curie

In 1903, Pierre Curie, together with Marie Curie and Henri Becquerel, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their joint work on radioactivity. The recognition marked the first time a Nobel Prize had been awarded to a couple. However, what makes this achievement particularly notable is that Pierre Curie insisted that Marie be included in the award, a gesture that demonstrated not only his scientific partnership with his wife but also his support for women in science, a rare stance in the male-dominated field of the time.

Tragically, Pierre Curie’s life was cut short in 1906 when he was killed in a street accident at the age of 46

Pierre Curie’s dedication to scientific rigor and his ability to work collaboratively with Marie, his wife and fellow scientist, was vital to their success. Their work would not only earn them the Nobel Prize but also set the stage for later advancements in nuclear physics and medicine.

Tragic Loss and Enduring Legacy

Tragically, Pierre Curie’s life was cut short in 1906 when he was killed in a street accident at the age of 46. His death was a blow to both the scientific community and his family. However, his legacy continued through his wife, Marie, who carried on their groundbreaking work and became the first woman to win a second Nobel Prize.

Today, Pierre Curie is remembered as a visionary physicist whose discoveries were instrumental in shaping the fields of physics, chemistry, and medicine. His contributions to magnetism, crystallography, and radioactivity remain foundational to scientific inquiry. His work continues to inspire scientists across disciplines and serves as a reminder of the power of precision, collaboration, and dedication in the pursuit of knowledge.

Space & Physics

MIT Physicists uncover key Mechanism behind fractional charge in Graphene

In the decades-long history of studying these phenomena, no one has observed a system that naturally leads to such fractional electron effects, according to the researchers.

Published

2 weeks ago

November 20, 2024

EP Staff

Credit: iStock

MIT physicists have made a significant breakthrough in understanding the phenomenon where electrons split into fractions of their usual charge, offering new insights into the behaviour of exotic electronic states in graphene and other two-dimensional materials.

This latest research builds on a discovery earlier this year, when a team led by Assistant Professor Long Ju at MIT reported that electrons in pentalayer graphene—a structure composed of five graphene layers stacked on top of boron nitride—exhibited fractional charge. Remarkably, this behaviour was observed without the application of a magnetic field, challenging prior assumptions.

Previously, scientists knew that under a strong magnetic field, electrons could split into fractions as part of the fractional quantum Hall effect. However, Ju’s findings marked the first time such fractional behaviour occurred in graphene without any magnetic influence, which led to the coining of the “fractional quantum anomalous Hall effect.” Since then, researchers have been eager to uncover how fractional charge could emerge in this unusual system.

MIT professor Senthil Todadri, who led the new study published in Physical Review Letters, offers a critical piece of the puzzle. Through detailed quantum mechanical calculations, Todadri and his team discovered that the electrons in pentalayer graphene form a crystal-like structure, which provides the ideal conditions for fractional electron behavior.

“This is a completely new mechanism,” said Todadri. “In the decades-long history of studying these phenomena, no one has observed a system that naturally leads to such fractional electron effects. It opens the door to all kinds of new experimental possibilities.”

The study, which includes contributions from Zhihuan Dong and former postdoc Adarsh Patri, is part of a wider body of research. Two other teams—one from Johns Hopkins University and another from Harvard University, UC Berkeley, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory—have also reported similar findings in the same journal issue.

Building on “Twistronics” and the Magic-Angle Graphene Discovery

This research builds upon the work of MIT physicist Pablo Jarillo-Herrero and his team, who in 2018 were the first to demonstrate that twisting two sheets of graphene could give rise to novel electronic behaviors. This discovery of “magic-angle graphene” spurred a new field known as “twistronics,” focused on understanding how the interactions between twisted two-dimensional materials could lead to unusual quantum phenomena, such as superconductivity and insulating behavior.

“We quickly realized that these twisted systems could provide the right conditions for fractional electron phenomena to emerge,” said Todadri, who collaborated with Jarillo-Herrero on a 2018 study that theorized such systems might exhibit fractional charge without a magnetic field. “We saw these systems as ideal platforms to study these fractional effects.”

A Surprising Discovery and the New Crystal Model

In September 2023, Todadri received an unexpected call from Ju, who was eager to share data showing fractional charge behavior in pentalayer graphene. This discovery caught Todadri by surprise, as it did not align with his earlier predictions. In his 2018 paper, Todadri had theorized that fractional charge would emerge from a specific twisting of the electron wavefunction, and that this twisting would intensify as more graphene layers were added.

“Initially, we expected the wavefunction to wind five times in pentalayer graphene,” Todadri explained. “But Ju’s experiments showed that it only wound once. This raised a big question—how do we explain what we’re seeing?”

Uncovering the Electron “Crystal”

Todadri and his team revisited their hypothesis and discovered they had overlooked an important factor. The conventional approach in the field had been to treat electrons as independent entities and analyze their quantum properties. However, in the confined, two-dimensional space of pentalayer graphene, electrons are forced to interact with each other, behaving according to their quantum correlations in addition to their natural repulsion.

By incorporating these interelectron interactions into their model, the team was able to match their predictions with the experimental data Ju had obtained. This led them to a crucial realization: the moiré pattern formed by the stacked graphene layers induces a weak electrical potential that forces the electrons to interact and form a crystal-like structure. This electron “crystal” creates a complex pattern of quantum correlations, allowing for the formation of fractional charge.

“The crystal has a whole set of unique properties that differentiate it from ordinary crystals,” said Todadri. “This opens up many exciting avenues for future research. In the short term, our work provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the fractional electron observations in pentalayer graphene and predicting similar phenomena in other systems.”

This new insight paves the way for further exploration into how graphene and other two-dimensional materials might be used to engineer new electronic states, with potential applications in quantum computing and other advanced technologies.