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Space & Physics

Need of the Hour – Evading the Kessler Syndrome

In 1978, Donald J. Kessler, an astrophysicist, predicted collisions between satellites can get out of hand as their population keeps increasing.

Karthik Vinod

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Illustration of space debris and defunct launcher stages in the Geostationary Orbit (GSO). Credit: ESA

In 2009, the Iridium 33 and Kosmos 2251 satellites collided to produce as many as 2,000 debris fragments, spraying 10 cm wide pieces in every direction – at speeds faster than a bullet

If any of these ever struck the ISS, orbiting closely, then all hell can break loose! Remember that scene in Gravity (2013) when Sandra Bullock’s character gets flung around? Well, it’s just one of several worse-case scenarios.

Even today, these space debris hover there, too close to be completely risk-free to the ISS. 

The US’ operate a Space Surveillance Network that tracks these debris, along with more than 20,000 fragments. They comprise old rocket booster stages, junk satellites, missile components from anti-satellite launches. 

However, very tiny pieces of fragments (<10 cm) can still be missed by ground radars. Space debris can include spent rocket stages, or defunct satellites drifting in space.

And a technical fix in orbital debris removing technology arose. 

Last month February 18th saw the launch of the Active Debris Removal by Astroscale-Japan (or ADRAS-J) satellite from Rocket Lab’s launch station in New Zealand. ADRAS-J is yet to actually demonstrate debris removal, as it’s parked in a rendezvous orbit in preparation for the demonstration later this month.

In 2022, the UK stated Active Debris Removal (ADR) as being vital to their Plan for Space Sustainability to “become tomorrow’s norms in space operation”. 

Space agencies across the world now issue commands for ‘collision avoidance maneuvers’ (CAM) when satellites cross within a certain radius. 

In fact, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) actually made public a trend showing the number of CAM commands issued rising every year. Such close-calls will only increase with the cumulative increase of satellites in orbit. 

Here’s a plot from the European Space Agency’s (ESA) 2022 Space Environment Report.

A plot of the number of space debris against time. The legend indicates the various types of space debris (rocket, satellite parts etc.). Credit: ESA 

But the problem is that – these satellite numbers are rising exponentially in such a short time – with mega-constellations entering center stage.

SpaceX launched the Starlink initiative, to demonstrate connectivity even in the remotest parts of the world. 

However, they alone have 5,504 satellites out there to date, all at low-earth orbit – under 600 km, which is quite where the crowd of satellites are now. That’s about 58% of the 9,414 operational satellites out there. And this happened metaphorically overnight – in the past few years. SpaceX plans to operate some 42,000 satellites in a decade.

The fear is that unregulated growth of satellites – or even satellite litter that are defunct – can make what is known as the Kessler syndrome, a reality. 

When Donald Kessler anticipated a chain reaction …

In 1978, Donald J. Kessler, an astrophysicist, predicted that collisions between satellites can trigger a domino effect of other satellite collisions above a certain threshold. Dubbed the Kessler syndrome, it’s a worst-case scenario possible in outer space, when earth’s orbit becomes impossible to thrive in or operate from.

To partly address the growing clutter of low-earth orbit satellites, the US’ Federal Communications Council (FCC) has put up legislation to have newly launched satellites deorbit 5 years after operations.

The irony is that the Kessler syndrome was foreseeable, except it was ignored by policymakers until they simply couldn’t.

Scientists building a satellite at RAL Space. Credit: UK STFC / Wikimedia

Western countries have taken some onus of responsibility into these space sustainability initiatives, simply because countries like the US own most of the satellite infrastructure operating in orbit.  

From space shuttles, rockets, space planes and the lunar lander that brought Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin to the moon, the Space Age heralded a brand new era for space technologies and research. But no space technology probably had more societal impact than the satellite. 

Seen vital for development and infrastructure, satellites are now ubiquitous, manufactured not just by space agencies, but also by engineering labs in universities, private companies and start-ups across the world. 

However, our costly endeavor to improve human lives are breeding new problems. And as a last resort, engineers are at it again to come up with technical fixes. 

But weren’t the technical risks understood if Kessler expressed his concern in the 1970s? 

Satellites, just like any technology, come with its set of benefits and risks. The benefits of satellites are obvious to many – phone connections, weather forecasting, banking, studying climate change, and the list goes on. 

At the end of a satellite’s lifespan though, many just stay there, as defunct satellites. 

Sure, there’s a ‘graveyard’ orbit where satellites can be made defunct after pushing them to a higher orbit to lay to rest forever. But not every defunct satellite is. In fact, 60% of all satellites are defunct. The operational satellites constitute a tiny minority. 

Partly to do with this mess is a lack of priority. The Space Race played out during the peak of the Cold War when both the US and Soviets wanted to demonstrate technological superiority. 

However, the outer orbit isn’t just a matter of mediating traffic or cleaning debris either. 

Space militarization has raised fears. Much of the initial Space Race began with the US and Soviets fearing the other could surveil over their national boundaries. But the tensions have now made headlines, with the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, with the US alleging that the Russians are developing a satellite that can drop nuclear weapons against the West. Building such a weapon would be violative of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, in addition to several other regulations against weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).

There’s also anti-satellite launch systems firing repurposed ballistic missiles into space missiles. The US, Russia, China and India all possess this technology – and have the capacity to threaten orbital infrastructure – civilian or military. But the consequence of losing control over the weapons, is to hit the threshold dictated by the Kessler syndrome.

We’ll need to bear in mind that even technical fixes can’t fix design thinking. When planners aren’t held accountable, for their individual decisions – such avoidable doomsday disasters become a talking point.

Space & Physics

This Sodium-Fuelled Clean Energy Breakthrough Could Electrify Aviation and Shipping

The innovation offers more than triple the energy density of today’s lithium-ion batteries — potentially clearing a major hurdle for electric-powered aviation, rail, and maritime travel

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An H-cell modified with electrodes and an ion-conducting ceramic membrane. Credits: Gretchen Ertl/MIT News

A new type of fuel cell developed by MIT researchers could represent a pivotal breakthrough in the race to decarbonize heavy transportation. Designed around liquid sodium metal, the innovation offers more than triple the energy density of today’s lithium-ion batteries — potentially clearing a major hurdle for electric-powered aviation, rail, and maritime travel.

Unlike traditional batteries that require time-consuming recharging, this system operates like a fuel cell that can be refueled quickly using liquid sodium — a cheap, abundant substance derived from salt. The technology, which uses air as a reactant and a solid ceramic electrolyte to facilitate the reaction, was tested in lab prototypes and demonstrated energy densities exceeding 1,500 watt-hours per kilogram — a level that could enable regional electric flight and clean shipping.

“We expect people to think that this is a totally crazy idea,” said Professor Yet-Ming Chiang, lead author and Kyocera Professor of Ceramics, in a media statement. “If they didn’t, I’d be a bit disappointed because if people don’t think something is totally crazy at first, it probably isn’t going to be that revolutionary.”

Chiang explained that current lithium-ion batteries top out at around 300 watt-hours per kilogram — far short of the 1,000 watt-hours needed for electric aircraft to become viable at scale. The new sodium-based cell meets that benchmark, which could enable 80% of domestic flights and drastically reduce aviation’s carbon footprint.

Moreover, the sodium-fueled system offers environmental benefits beyond zero emissions. Its chemical byproduct, sodium oxide, reacts spontaneously in the atmosphere to capture carbon dioxide and convert it into sodium bicarbonate — better known as baking soda — which may help counteract ocean acidification if it ends up in marine environments.

“There’s this natural cascade of reactions that happens when you start with sodium metal,” Chiang said. “It’s all spontaneous. We don’t have to do anything to make it happen, we just have to fly the airplane.”

The team has already created two functioning lab-scale prototypes: one vertical and one horizontal model. In both, sodium gradually reacts with oxygen from air to generate electricity, and a moist air stream improves the process by allowing liquid byproducts to be expelled more easily.

Karen Sugano, one of the MIT doctoral students on the project, noted, “The key was that we can form this liquid discharge product and remove it easily, as opposed to the solid discharge that would form in dry conditions,” she said in a media statement.

The researchers have founded a startup, Propel Aero, housed in MIT’s startup incubator The Engine, to scale the technology. Their first commercial goal: a brick-sized fuel cell capable of powering a large agricultural drone — expected to be ready within a year.

Chiang emphasized the economic and safety benefits of using sodium, which melts just below 100°C and was once mass-produced in the U.S. for leaded gasoline production. “It reminds us that sodium metal was once produced at large scale and safely handled and distributed around the U.S.,” he said.

Critically, the fuel cell design also avoids many safety concerns of high-energy batteries by physically separating the fuel and oxidizer. “If you’re pushing for really, really high energy density, you’d rather have a fuel cell than a battery for safety reasons,” Chiang said.

By reviving and reimagining sodium-metal chemistry in a practical, scalable form, the MIT team may have lit the path toward clean, electrified transportation systems — from the skies above to the oceans below.

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Space & Physics

Is Time Travel Possible? Exploring the Science Behind the Concept

Subtle forms of time travel — such as time dilation — do occur and have practical implications in science and technology.

Veena M A

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Everyone is, in a way, a time traveller. Whether we like it or not, we are constantly moving through time — one second per second. From one birthday to the next, we travel through time at a steady pace, just like walking one foot per footstep. However, when we talk about “time travel,” we often imagine something much more dramatic — traveling faster (or even backward) through time, as seen in science fiction movies and novels. But is such a thing truly possible?

From Fiction to Science

The concept of time travel first gained widespread attention through literature, particularly with H.G. Wells’ 1895 novel The Time Machine. In it, time is described as the fourth dimension, akin to space, and the protagonist travels forward and backward in time using a specially built machine. Interestingly, this idea predates Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, which would later reshape how we understand space and time.

Image credit: Wikimedia Commons

Einstein’s Contribution: Relativity and Time Dilation

In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein introduced a revolutionary idea through his theory of relativity. He proposed that space and time are interconnected, forming a four-dimensional continuum called space-time. According to his theory, the speed of light (186,000 miles per second) is the ultimate speed limit in the universe. But how does this relate to time travel?
Einstein’s theory states that as you move faster — especially at speeds approaching the speed of light — time slows down relative to someone who is stationary. This phenomenon, known as time dilation, has been proven through various experiments. One famous example involved two synchronized atomic clocks — one placed on Earth and the other onboard a high-speed jet. When the plane returned, the onboard clock showed slightly less time had passed compared to the one on the ground. This demonstrates that, at very high speeds, time passes more slowly.

Astronaut Twins and Time

A notable example of time dilation involved twin astronauts Scott and Mark Kelly. Scott spent 520 days aboard the International Space Station, while Mark spent only 54 days in space. Due to the effects of time dilation, Scott aged slightly less than Mark — by about 5 milliseconds. Though this difference is minuscule, it is real and measurable, showing that time can indeed “bend” under certain conditions.

The GPS Example

Surprisingly, even GPS satellites experience time differently than we do on Earth. These satellites orbit at altitudes of about 20,200 kilometers and travel at speeds of roughly 14,000 km/h. Due to both their speed (special relativity) and weaker gravitational pull at high altitudes (general relativity), time ticks slightly faster for the satellites than for devices on Earth. This discrepancy is corrected using Einstein’s equations to ensure precise positioning. Without these adjustments, GPS systems could be off by several miles each day.

Science Fiction vs. Scientific Reality

Science fiction has long explored imaginative time travel — characters jumping into machines and traveling decades into the future or past. Stories often depict them altering historical events or witnessing the far future. However, there is no scientific evidence that anyone has travelled backward or forward in time in such a dramatic way.

Renowned physicist Stephen Hawking addressed this idea humorously in 2009. He hosted a party for time travellers — but only announced it afterward, reasoning that if time travel were possible, people from the future would show up. No one came. Hawking took this as a tongue-in-cheek sign that backward time travel may not be feasible.

Could Wormholes Be the Key?

Theoretical physics does suggest possibilities like wormholes — shortcuts through space-time. According to Einstein’s equations, these could, in theory, connect distant places and times. A wormhole might allow someone to enter at one point in space and exit at another, potentially in a different time. However, this remains purely speculative. The extreme gravitational forces within black holes or wormholes could destroy anything attempting to pass through.
Moreover, the idea of backward time travel introduces major paradoxes — such as the classic “grandfather paradox,” where someone goes back in time and prevents their own existence. Such contradictions challenge our understanding of causality and logic.

The Limitations of Current Science

At present, building a time machine capable of transporting people backward or forward in time by centuries remains outside the realm of scientific possibility. It’s a concept best enjoyed in novels and films for now. However, subtle forms of time travel — such as time dilation — do occur and have practical implications in science and technology.

While we may not have DeLoreans or TARDISes at our disposal, time travel — at least in small, measurable ways — is a part of our reality. The interplay of speed, gravity, and time demonstrates that our universe is far more flexible than it appears. And who knows? In some distant corner of the cosmos, nature might already be bending time in ways we are only beginning to imagine.

Until then, we’ll keep moving forward — one second per second.

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Space & Physics

MIT Physicists Capture First-Ever Images of Freely Interacting Atoms in Space

The new technique allows scientists to visualize real-time quantum behavior by momentarily freezing atoms in motion and illuminating them with precisely tuned lasers

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Image: Sampson Wilcox

In an intriguing advancement for quantum physics, MIT researchers have captured the first images of individual atoms freely interacting in space — a feat that until now was only predicted theoretically.

The new imaging technique, developed by a team led by Professor Martin Zwierlein, allows scientists to visualize real-time quantum behavior by momentarily freezing atoms in motion and illuminating them with precisely tuned lasers. Their results, published in Physical Review Letters, reveal how bosons bunch together and fermions pair up in free space — phenomena crucial to understanding superconductivity and other quantum states of matter.

“We are able to see single atoms in these interesting clouds of atoms and what they are doing in relation to each other, which is beautiful,” said Zwierlein in a press statement.

Using their method — called “atom-resolved microscopy” — the team was able to trap atom clouds with a loose laser, briefly immobilize them with a lattice of light, and then image their positions via fluorescence. This approach allowed the researchers to observe quantum behaviors at the level of individual atoms for the first time.

The MIT group directly visualized sodium atoms (bosons) bunching together in a shared quantum wave — a vivid confirmation of the de Broglie wave theory — and lithium atoms (fermions) pairing up despite their natural repulsion, a key mechanism underlying superconductivity.

“This kind of pairing is the basis of a mathematical construction people came up with to explain experiments. But when you see pictures like these, it’s showing in a photograph, an object that was discovered in the mathematical world,” said co-author Richard Fletcher in a press statement.

Two other research teams — one led by Nobel laureate Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT, and another by Tarik Yefsah at École Normale Supérieure — also reported similar quantum imaging breakthroughs in the same journal issue, marking a significant moment in the experimental visualization of quantum mechanics.

The MIT team plans to expand the technique to probe more exotic quantum behaviors, including quantum Hall states. “Now we can verify whether these cartoons of quantum Hall states are actually real,” Zwierlein added. “Because they are pretty bizarre states.”

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