Space & Physics
Superconducting Saga: What happened to LK-99?
The community of condensed matter physicists was put under spotlight in the wake of a paper, triggering a frenzy like none other in recent times.
In July 2023, two South Korean experimental physicists, Lee Sukbae and Kim Ji-Hoon published a pre-print in arXiv, claiming discovery of superconductivity in a sample, occurring at room temperature.
The condensed matter physics community was put under spotlight in the wake of this paper, triggering a frenzy like none other in recent times.
The material dubbed, LK-99, after the initials of the South Korean physicists, promised nothing short of a revolution to the electronics industry.
But before I go further, let’s go through some superconductivity basics.
What are superconductors?
Basically, superconductivity is a macroscopic quantum phenomenon. Our story begins with two ground-breaking experiments.
In 1911, the Dutch physicist, Heike Onnes observed that a mercury wire dipped in liquid helium, offered zero resistance to the passage of electricity, when the temperature of the mercury was lowered to-269◦ C.
In 1937, Pyotr Kapitsa, John F. Allen and Don Misener discovered that at an even lower temperature close to -273◦ C, liquid helium-4 transformed into a superfluid. A superfluid’s an exotic fluid exhibiting zero viscosity.
Both these exotic phenomena of superfluidity and superconductivity are closely linked, though they’re not the same.
However, this effect would go for years without a solid theory, until the physicists’ trio, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer, put together a ‘complete’ microscopic theory, known as the ‘BCS theory’. The theory makes a number of quantitative predictions about the behavior of superconductors. Most importantly, it shows how pairs of electrons would couple to form Cooper pairs, overcoming mutual repulsion below a set critical temperature. Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer would go on to win the 1972’s Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
As much as superconductors revolutionized the electronics industry in the 20th century, the temperatures at which this effect is commonly seen is in the same regime as outer space. It takes resources for laboratories to reach these temperatures. But imagine if nature showed us a material that can become a superconductor at room temperature …
The case for ‘room temperature’ superconductors
But you may be wondering what’s the big deal with room temperature superconductors anyway? For one, they’re promising an overnight revolution of sorts in the electronics industry. The approximately 7% loss of energy there is to pass currents through wires during transportation, can be brought down to near zero with room temperature superconductors. Another important use of these superconductors would be in the development of strong magnetic fields. Strong stable magnetic fields are used in MRI imaging and maglev trains.
Source: Ramon Salinero / Unsplash
This could make such technologies more accessible and cheaper to the public. Renewable energy generation from solar and wind power could see their efficiency rise with the help of room-temperature superconductors. The use of room-temperature superconductors could grow exponentially more after its discovery, even in applications we do not know yet. Think of the world today without any semiconductors, it would be tough to live without our LED lamps or solar panels. Similarly, room temperature superconductors could inexorably revolutionize our way of living for the better. I mean, who knows? Nobody knows! It’s yet to be invented.
Sukbae and Kim claimed that LK-99 displayed superconductivity when the temperature dropped below 127◦ C. They claimed to have observed zero resistance currents.
And that was all it took for social media savvy tech entrepreneurs to embark on a hype train, and spread the word on room temperature superconductors potentially being real at last. Except it’s not technically room temperature – for 127◦ C is way past the boiling point of water. But it’s much easier for laboratories to set up an experiment, investigate and replicate 127◦ C.
The dream fever isn’t abating away, but the proof really is in the pudding.
There’s nothing to say room temperature superconductors can’t exist. In fact, scientists who worked in producing these results have also shared this opinion in their work.
Conventional superconductivity – with extreme cold critical temperatures – was challenged back in 1986, when certain cuprate compounds such as yttirium barium copper oxide (or YBCO) were discovered. They have a higher critical temperature of -183◦ C, which is still very cold, but still warmer compared to helium-4. Such critical temperatures are outside the realm of the standard BCS theory, with the main mechanisms underpinning them being a topic of research.
The race for verification
After their paper was submitted in arXiv, Sukbae and Kim released a video of the levitating LK-99 sample on a magnet – a hallmark signature of the Meissner effect. The Meissner effect is a prediction of the standard BCS theory – when magnetic field lines are ousted from within the material itself.
They provided a detailed description of how LK-99 can be synthesised. This led materials labs from across the world to descend into a frenzy to try and replicate their results.
Some of the earliest research were done at the National Physics Laboratory (NPL) in New Delhi and Beihang University in Beijing (BU).
A team from the Southeast University in Nanjing, observed a near-zero resistance in LK-99 at -163 ◦ C. The team from Nanjing used an X-ray diffraction technique consistent with the work that the Korean scientists had published.
And then the theorists entered the fray. Sinead Griffin from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, US, performed calculations to suggest there really were telltale signs of room temperature super conductance in LK-99. Specifically, possible mechanisms for forming Cooper pairs were identified.
While these results were tantalising, they did not give conclusive evidence of superconductivity.
The Meissner effect – or what the South Koreans claimed was the Meissner effect- couldn’t be replicated in any other studies.
Griffin attained social media popularity after her tweets with over 14K followers on X. However, truth be told – Griffith wasn’t explicitly backing anybody – but was merely giving the South Koreans’ work a fair shot.
The last twist in the saga came when she said, “My paper did *not* prove nor give evidence of superconductivity”.
Realization dawns
And suddenly, it wasn’t going in LK-99’s favour at all. It turned out the research team at Southeast University in Nanjing, had made incorrect measurements using faulty instrumentation, meaning they were unreliable.
Whereas, the studies from India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and Beihang University didn’t find report any superconductivity effect. In fact, it just seemed like dull, grey metal.
But the final series of nails in the coffin were the conclusive results by Yuan Li at Peking Institute, and Yi Jiang at the Donostia International Physics Centre, Spain. They proved beyond doubt that LK-99, as synthesised by the South Korean team, was a ferromagnet. Yuan Li also explained the levitating video of LK-99 pellets over a magnet was a result of ferromagnetism. He also showed the absence of superconducting current at low temperatures.
A ferrofluid exhibiting ferromagnetic properties; Source: Etienne Desclides / Unsplash
Science is often rife with controversies and debatable results. Many physicists have published unconfirmed, and published plagiarized work. Some notable examples include the alleged groundbreaking work of Jan Schön, who claimed discovery of organic transistors. Only to be charged with fraud after he made up his results, thus bringing him disrepute that brought an end to his scientific career pretty early on.
Then there was the work by Anshu Pandey and Dev Thapa on similar claims of room temperature superconductors that weren’t replicated.
Although it’s unfortunate that this saga ended so disappointingly with LK-99, I am not, in any manner suggestive of the fact that room-temperature superconductivity cannot exist.
Scientists who worked in producing these results have also shared this opinion in their work. Many scientists have however also shared the need to understand the results and related nitty gritty, before jumping the gun.
However, the collaboration amongst scientists at universities across the world, was focused on uncovering LK-99’s true properties.
It wasn’t just mere claims, backed by data, but also the peer-review process that helped redefine public discourse, and set the facts straight. And that had made all the difference.
Space & Physics
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Space & Physics
India’s Moonshot Moment: Can New Delhi Turn Orbit Into Influence
India’s space mission is entering a new era, from Gaganyaan and space stations to private startups, space diplomacy and national security.
Gaganyaan is only the beginning. India’s space mission faces new opportunities and challenges as human spaceflight, diplomacy, private industry and security reshape its ambitions beyond Earth.
Indian human space programme Gaganyaan is mooted by Indian Space Research Organisation. This ambitious space mission aims to send Indian astronauts in Outer Space indigenously by the proactive leadership of the Indian government. India as a leading space power of the world aims to demonstrate her space capabilities and research in the final frontier. The Gaganyaan mission is the dream of 1.4 billion Indians. The programme will be initiated in 2027 creating a historic mark in the collective space exploration journeys. This is a stepping stone as NASA is envisioning to make Moon as the next base for active space programmes by 2030.
According to NASA this spectacular feat will be achieved soon within 3 years. NASA has asked India’s ISRO to join for the permanent Lunar base in the south pole of Moon. Here comes the significance of Indo-US space partnership and how India will navigate through the space diplomacy keeping in mind of Indian dream of Bharatiya Antariksh Station and the long lasting commitment to strategic autonomy and an independent foreign policy. India already signed the Artemis accords in June 2023. If India is ready to be part of this initiative, it will mark the beginning of a new era in India-United States space cooperation. The question is how India will navigate this process, protecting its sovereignty and national interest while engaging with NASA to help build a new civilisation of space travellers on the lunar surface. According to media reports India’s spectacular success with the Chandrayaan missions has led the United States to choose India as a natural partner, inviting it to join space exploration programmes on the Moon.
India’s Space Mission: The Next Frontier of Global Power
The Gaganyaan mission is significant for strengthening Indian space station’s vision. The Bharatiya Antariksh Station is an Indian space station which is a symbol of Indian space nationalism and a centre for joint research with friendly nations. India is actively pushing for space diplomacy and it is evident from the trainings received by Gaganyaan crew members. They have trained in Russia and the United States, continuing India’s commitment to strong bilateral ties with both Cold War-era rivals. Space exploration and travel are combined with diplomacy, as Indian foreign policy in a multipolar world order pushes for strong partnerships with both Russia and the United States.
Indian Air Force veteran Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma was the first Indian cosmonaut to reach the final frontier, in a Soviet space mission. Following this historic feat, Kalpana Chawla and Sunita Williams travelled to outer space on American missions. Recently, Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla represented India in the Axiom mission successfully travelling to International Space Station and returned safely as a national hero. He is also part of the Gaganyaan mission. Colonel Anil Menon, who is part of the US Space Force, is also now in outer space. He has strong Indian connections, making him the first astronaut with roots in Kerala to explore the domain of outer space.
With privatisation in outer space in India, Skyroot Aerospace, a private company based in Hyderabad, successfully launched Vikram-1 rocket to low Earth orbit. Thus India is taking leverage of the infinite possibilities chasing stars and galaxies. Indian space ambitions are at a historic juncture now, with over 400 private Space startups. Another mission is aiming for a reusable re-entry vehicle, targeted for launch in 2027, building on ISRO’s success with the Pushpak mission, the Reusable Launch Vehicle Landing Experiment, in 2024.
However, there are concerns in India’s space sector, with many ISRO scientists seeking early retirement. The efficiency of major projects like Aditya and Gaganyaan should not be affected by this. Former ISRO Chairman G Madhavan Nair shared his concerns with the media about bureaucratisation within the organisation. ISRO is a symbol of India’s space story which is filled with resilience and strength of great visionary leaders like Dr Vikram Sarabhai and Dr APJ Abdul Kalam. Unfortunately, there have been budgetary cuts to major ISRO space projects. The government’s focus on Viksit Bharat, a holistically developed India, is only possible with investment in science and technology, and in-depth research in the domain of outer space.
Outer space is militarised, and the race for resource nationalism is a reality. For India to emerge as a global power, investment in space exploration is inevitable. Nations are increasingly aware of the strategic use of outer space for securing national interests. Satellites with civilian and national security purposes are critical assets of any nation. India too has many civilian and strategic assets in outer space, and protecting these is the responsibility of the government. The anti-satellite test Mission Shakti is a milestone demonstrating India’s hard-power capabilities in outer space. Some nations have capabilities such as laser-guided weapons, which can disable or destroy an enemy’s assets during conflict. Space is a key domain for ensuring seamless communication and intelligence-sharing during both war and peace.
Intelligence and surveillance are key factors in winning the wars of the present and future. The dominance in space technology and information superiority will determine the victories of nations fighting for their national interest.
In India, the share of higher education in the annual budgetary allocation remains low. A young generation passionate to explore arenas of space science is to be inculcated with the right mindset. Allocation of funds in education sector is a key requirement for building a strong India with educated and skilled youth. ISRO’s active collaboration with 100 Atal Tinkering Labs is a positive step in inculcating the spirit of scientific enquiry at the grassroots level. Support and encouragement for students in the creative arts and sciences is the need of the hour. Atal Tinkering Labs and India’s startup ecosystem can achieve greater synergy, ensuring a seamless transition from school life to entrepreneurship, from plan to execution.
Human activity has actively degraded the ecosystem, impacting life on both land and water. Now, with active competition in the arena of outer space, space debris is a serious global security challenge. This debris travels swiftly in outer space, damaging active space assets including civilian and defence satellites. The young budding scientists of India need to re-invent and discover practical solutions to the pressing global challenge of space debris and work with relentless passion for making a strong and stable India.
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